allusion - a reference in a literary work to a person, place, or thing in history or another work of literature. Verb: to allude to.

ambiguity - a statement having different and sometimes contradictory meanings; something difficult to understand or explain because it involves many different aspects. Adj.: ambiguous.

analogy - a comparison that demonstrates the similarity (-ies) between two things or concepts.

antithesis - strong contrast, opposition.

aphorism - a short and often witty statement that contains an important opinion or general truth. E. g. Art is long, life is short.

atmosphere - the mood, feeling or quality of life in a story conveyed by the author's choice of language and organization which evokes certain emotions in the reader. The atmosphere may be pleasant, peaceful, gloomy, violent etc. The depiction of landscape or interior often contributes to the atmosphere.

character - a personage in a story or narrative.

dynamic character - a character that undergoes significant development or change.

static character - a character that remains unchanged throughout the story.

flat character - a character with little depth or complexity who may be described in one or two phrases. Flat character is often a type or a caricature.

round character - a character with a complex (often contradictory) personality who defies simple description or analysis.

chronological order - simple temporal order in which the actions are presented as they actually occurred.

climax - structural element of a text, the moment when the conflict is most intense. The climax is preceded by rising action.

conflict - the problem that drives the plot of a story forward towards its conclusion.

external conflict - a character is involved into struggle with the environment or other characters.

internal conflict - a character struggles with himself/herself.

context - 1) the text surrounding a word that gives this word its meaning;

2) historical and cultural factors surrounding the events in the story and giving them significance. Adj.: contextual.

contrast - comparing two things by noting their differences.

defeated expectancy (anticlimax; bathos) - an abrupt and often humorous descent from something serious or intense to something trivial.

dйnouement [de?'nu: ma: ?] - (solution) structural element of fictional texts in which the conflict is solved.

dialogue - written conversation between characters.

didactic - intended to teach a lesson. This lesson is called a moral.

epithet - an adjective or adjective phrase used to define a characteristic quality of a person or thing and usually evoking a vivid image.

euphemism - an indirect word or phrase that is used to refer to something embarrassing or unpleasant, sometimes to make it seem more acceptable than it really is. E. g. “to pass away” instead of “to die”.

exposition - the introduction of a story where the author presents the characters in their setting, suggests the theme and hints at the central conflict that will drive the story forward.

fable - usually a short fictional narrative with animals that represent human types. A fable has a clear didactic function.

fiction - narrative writing that is not factual (novel, short story, fable).

flashback - an interruption of the chronological sequence by the introduction of an event that occurred earlier. It may be presented as a dream, a memory or in a dialogue.

foreshadowing - the introduction of clues early in a story that help predict the outcome. Verb: to foreshadow.

genre - type of literature distinguished from other types by form, technique or subject matter (e. g. short story, novel, fable).

hyperbole [ha?'p?: b?l?] - obvious and deliberate exaggeration for the purpose of emphasis. It is not meant to be taken literally, but is used figuratively to create humour or emphasis. E. g. I told you a thousand times not to do that.

initiation story - a story which shows a young character experiencing a significant change of knowledge about the world and himself/herself, a change of character through a confrontation with the realities of adult world.

imagery (image) - the use of words or figures of speech to create a mental picture. Imagery exploits all the senses to produce powerful impression. Imagery can be visual, auditory, kinetic, olfactory, gustative and tactile.

implied reader - a hypothetical figure to whom the text is addressed.

inversion - the reversal of the normally expected order of words for the purpose of emphasis.

irony - some sort of contradiction between appearance and reality.

verbal irony - speech in which what is said is the opposite of what is meant.

dramatic irony - a circumstance in which characters fail to understand their own situation and make wrong fateful choices.

situational irony - a situation which demonstrates a contradiction of what the reader considers appropriate and what actually occurs.

cosmic irony - a situation in which some unknown force brings about dire and dreadful events.

leitmotif - see “motif”.

DESCRIBING CHARACTERS

NOTE. The division into positive and negative qualities is relative and is made here only for convenience. Literary characters (especially round ones) may combine positive and negative qualities. A negative character may possess such qualities as “cautious" or “courteous”, which are basically positive, and vice versa, a positive character may be imprudent or careless, which are basically negative qualities. So, when describing a character, it's helpful to look through all categories. Certain qualities (such as “experienced”, “emotional”) may be considered either positive or negative, depending on the interpretation, so they are classified here as “neutral”.

NEGATIVE QUALITIES