English neologisms authors in the artistic activity of the person

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English neologisms authors in the artistic activity of the person



Content

Introduction

1. Neologisms in Modern English

1.1 Definition of the term "neologism"

1.2 Definition of the term "author neologism"

1.3 Clarifying values neologism using dictionaries

1.4 Translation of neologisms

1.5 National-cultural specificity of learning a new vocabulary of English

2 Transfer features neologisms in modern English language (based on the trilogy "The Lord of the Rings" and the novel "Harry Potter")

2.1 Modes of transfer of neologisms

2.2 The results of the experimental work

2.3 Causes and sources of the appearance of neologisms Internet resources

2.4 Lost in Translation neologisms (based on author neologisms)

2.4.1 Methods of forming author neologisms

2.4.2 Interpreters author neologisms

2.5 Lost in Translation neologisms (based on author neologisms)

Conclusion

List of references



Introduction

Neologism (from the Greek. Neos ' new ' + logos ' word ') is a new word or phrase, which appeared in English as a result of socio-political changes, the development of science and technology, new conditions of life to describe a new, previously unknown object or phenomenon, or to express new concepts. For example: Wikipedia - Википедия (multilingual, widely available, freely distributable encyclopedia, published on the Internet); GPS (global positioning system) - satellite navigation system, is actively used at the moment, including in cars, etc.

This thesis is devoted to the problem of translation author neologisms, new words are usually introduced in literature and journalism writers and journalists in order to highlight the individual characteristics of the style. Author neologisms give the text emotional expressiveness and expressiveness.

Due to the neological problem increased interest is an important role of neologism as mirrors of language development, which reflects language adaptation to changing under the influence of external factors, the conditions of its operation. The starting point of lexical innovation is the practice, since lexical nominative activities affect cultural, historical and socio- political conditions of life and work of the language community. The fact that most of nominative incentives deliver social, political, scientific and technical, cultural spheres of human activity, at the present stage of development of the science of language is becoming increasingly evident need for a comprehensive study of the linguistic and socio-cultural processes in their functional interaction. Advisability of such an approach is even more apparent due to globalization of culture, which is understood to accelerate the integration of nations into the global system, which is accompanied by a global informatization of the world community. [1; 180]

Relevance of this study is due, on the one hand, the need to study new vocabulary as a means of reflecting the changes taking place in modern lingo culture influenced by such factors as socially significant computerization, computerization , globalization , etc. In transitional periods of social and economic development of the issue of language change becomes one of the central issues in research as an objective indicator is the dynamics of social and industrial transformations. From the other side, during the change of linguistic paradigms Millennium linguists is increasing interest in the study of cognitive structures, linguistic forms. In connection with the foregoing in the world, the role of translation work.

A significant amount of errors made by translators to transfer the author's vocabulary, suggests that the problem is quite acute. Therefore Translation author neologisms paid a lot of attention in linguistic research. Related problems are treated differently, recommended various techniques and methods of translation. There are different opinions as unambiguous, there is no standard solution and cannot be. Depending on the situation requires a different approach, a different strategy of translation, different translation solutions.

The object of the present study is based on English neologisms authors in the artistic activity of the person.

Neologisms are the subject of research in modern English and their translation (based on the author's neologisms)

The aim of the research is theoretical and practical justification issue of neologisms in modern English and their translation (based on the author's neologisms).

To achieve this objective a set of tasks:

- define the concept and the term neologism;

- define the concept of the term "author neologism."

- examine the features of the translation of neologisms;

- consider the peculiarities of translation author terms;

- identify the main methods of forming neologisms author in the lyrics, as knowledge of these techniques is basic for understanding the value of a new word .

- understand the meaning of the author neologism.

- as well as the author's analysis of the structure of the neologism.

Scientific novelty of the study is determined by the tasks, the orientation of research on disclosure of scientific potential methodological grounds , retrieval and processing of information , taking into account not only linguistic, but also cultural factors shaping the content neological fields in English , as well as the problems of translation lexicon .

The theoretical significance of this study is to further develop the theory neology as one of the branches of the theory of nomination, in the allocation of common language and culture methodological platform, on the basis of which to develop methods for the study of lexical units of the language, speakers playable characters in the function "first" culture and participating in broadcast mentality of the people who are native speakers, as well as problems of their translation.

The practical value of the work is determined by the fact that the findings of the study, as well as illustrative material can be used in the formation of linguistic-cultural competence in English language learners, because apart from the social and cultural environment of language learning there are objective difficulties in learning new vocabulary. The material in this work may also find use when writing textbooks on cross-cultural issues in the practice of compiling directories of the new American lexicon , in lecture courses in general linguistics , lexicology of modern English language , special courses on English neology (universities, centers for the teaching of foreign languages in courses, etc.).

Research materials are trilogy J.R.R. Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings" and the series of novels of J.K. Rowling "Harry Potter."

Theoretical basis of this study is the scientific developments in the field and neologii neografii (S.I. Alatortseva , J.K. Voloshin A.N. Ivanov, N.C. Kotelova V.I. Zabotkina , E. Rosen, E. Senko , G.M. Stepanov, E.V. Yumshanova , J. Algeo, J. Ayto, R. Barnhart, G. Cannon, G. Forgue, S. Rot, D. Odmark, A. Rey, G. Guilbert), cognitive linguistics (N.F. Alefirenko N.D. Arutyunov , A.P. Grandmother , E.L. Boyar , A. Wierzbicka , V.G. Gak , V.Z. Demyankov , E.S. Kubryakova L.A. Lipilina , V.A. Maslov , J. Lakoff and M. Johnson) and linguistics (V.I. Karasik , D.S. Likhachev, V.A. Maslov , Y. Stepanov , V.N. Telia) translation V.Commissarov, A.N. Garbovsky etc.

In the research paper will be discussed in detail ways of formation of neologisms author in the lyrics, as knowledge of these techniques is the highlight values in interpreting new words and ways of translation, or rather the transfer of author neologisms translators, using various types of transferable and nontransferable equivalents.

Given the specificity of the test of linguistic phenomena, the solution of tasks carried out by means of a set of methods:

1) descriptive (techniques of observation, generalization, the typology of the analyzed material, its quantitative representation);

2) comparative analysis of the transfer;

3) contextual analysis;

4) analysis of word-formation;

5) linguistic analysis



1. Neologisms in Modern English

1.1 Definition of the term "neologism"

Neologism (neo + Greek. Logos word) is a new word, linguistic innovation (figure of speech), the grammatical feature appearing in the language. [2; 166]

A large number of new lexical units appeared in connection with the development of computer technology. Such neologisms are divided into several semantic groups:

1) lexical items referring to types of computers and their structure, such as: personal computer (PC)-"персональный компьютер", supercomputer-"суперкомпьютер", multi-user-"компьютер для нескольких человек", neurocomputer-"электронный аналог человеческого мозга " , hardware-"части компьютера", software-"программа компьютера", monitor-"экран", megabyte of computer memory-"мегабайт памяти компьютера", data-"текст программы, вводимой в компьютер", bogusware-"программа компьютера, составленная для разрушения программ компьютеров", vapourware-"опытные образцы ЭВМ, для выставок, но не для производства", etc.

2) lexical items referring to types of computer languages such as: BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)-"Бейсик", Fortran (Formula Translation)-"Фортран" and others;

3) lexical units denoting concepts associated with work on computers, for example: liveware-"специалисты, работающие на компьютерах", computerman - "специалист по ЭВМ", computerize -"составлять программу ЭВМ или оборудовать компьютерной техникой," "компьютеризовать" computerization - "компьютеризация", to trouble-shoot - "исправить, починить компьютер", to blitz out - "уничтожить часть данных в памяти компьютер," etc.

In English, there are speaking countries computerizations distributed in various spheres of life, including in the home. A large number of neologisms associated with the use of computers in everyday life, is formed by the reduced form of tele-, e.g.: telepost - "место в доме, где находится компьютер", telework, to telecommute - "работать на дому, имея компьютерную связь с производством" telebanking - "финансовая служба, позволяющая клиенту осуществлять банковские операции через телевизор или домашний компьютер ", telemarketing - " практика продажи по телефону", teleshopping - "заказ покупки по телефону" (in the latter two cases, there are costs and fixing computer communication with the bank). Operational and other types of lexical items, such as: dial-a-taxi - "заказ такси по телефону", dial-meal - "заказ еды по телефону" (in these cases, as well as the above, provides computer communications with the appropriate center), etc.

Computerization is used in various fields of science and technology, leading to a large number of terminological neologisms. For example, in the field of linguistics : translation - "машинный перевод", interlingua - искусственный язык для машинного перевода на несколько языков", electronic - translator - "ЭВМ-переводчик", in biometrics, in particular to denote biometric protection from thieves: biometric security - "биометрическая защита", biometric systems - "биометрические средства защиты", biometric locks - "биометрические замки", computerized card - "карточки с биометрическим устройством, позволяющим открывать дверь, сейф и т.п.", Finger-print-scanner биометрическое устройство, распознающие отпечатки пальцев" (т.е. "узнающее" отпечатки пальцев того, кому можно открыть дверь, сейф и т.п.), biometric eye-scanner -"биометрическое устройство, распознающее особенности радужной оболочки глаза" (в разговорной речи это устройство получило название Eye-Dentity - своеобразный каламбур со словом identily)"biometric device, voice recognition", in medicine: telemonitory systems \ unit -"аппаратура, позволяющая врачу лечить больных на расстоянии" colloquially this equipment is called Buddy System, to electronically monitor -"лечить больных на расстоянии с помощью соответствующей аппаратуры" [41; 56]

Relatively new group can be considered semantic neologisms, space-related activities. As a priority in space belongs to our country, the first in English lexical units in this area have been borrowing from the Russian language, for example: sputnic, cosmos, cosmonaut, Lunokhod, planetokhod, etc. In connection with the development of the U.S. space program appeared neologisms in which is often used morpheme space-, e.g.: spaceship, spacenik - "космический корабль ", spacefaring - "полеты в космос" (by analogy with the seafaring). Neologisms appeared, such as satellite - "искусственный спутник", astronaut - "астронавт". Due to the special test device for movement in space extravehicular any synonyms space-bike b mini-bike with "автолет". By Space neologisms are also following lexical items : microgravity - "микрогравитация", zero gravity - "нулевая гравитация", aerocapture - "тормозящее устройство космического корабля", retrorocket - "возвращающаяся ракета", link up - "стыковка космический кораблей", cargo module - "грузовой отсек космического корабля", penguin suit - "скафандр космонавта", stellar brothers - "космонавты, совершающие совместный космический полет", etc.

New semantic neologisms group are associated with the alleged land visits by aliens from outer space , for example : UFO (Unidentified flying object) - "НЛО (неопознанный летающий объект)" and the formation of English abbreviations such as ufology - "уфология", ufologist - "уфолог" , UFO-drome - "площадка, где садится НЛО", extra-terrestrials - "инопланетяне", saucerman - "инопланетянин", saucer "s feet -"отпечатки, оставленные летающей тарелкой."

A large number of neologisms arose with the development of the press. Bigger bang for a buck - эффективное использование ассигнований на оборону, в основном за счет ядерных средств сдерживания. Big lie - большая ложь, гитлеровская пропаганда. Black hats - злодеи, негодяи.Can carrier - козел отпущения. Green power - "власть денег". Jane Crow - "дискриминация женщин" Larger than life - "невероятный, сказочный, преувеличенный". Log-roller - "политический толкач". Man on horseback - "военный диктатор". Pot-culture - "образ жизни наркоманов". Put-down - "резкий ответ". Trade off - "компромисс." Roll-call - "перекличка для проверки наличия".

In connection with the development of aviation appeared following lexical units: airbus - "аэробус ", helibus - "вертолет-автобус", seadrome - "гидроаэродром", to bail out - "катапультироваться" and others when there were planes that require a small area for take-off and landing, having the following neologisms: STOL (Short Take-Off and Landing) - " укороченный пробег ", STOL-port - "аэродром для самолетов, с укороченным пробегом", verti-port - "аэродром для самолетов с вертикальным взлетом и посадкой."

In the visual arts is a rapid process of experimentation, and new manners of painting paintings and other art works. [3; 169] Thus, in the 60 -s. XX century there were abstract art , built on the basis of geometric shapes , and in connection with this trend emerged following synonymous neologisms : minimal art, minimalism, rejected art, reductivism. In the same period there were also other artistic direction : ABC art - "искусство, упрощающее и разлагающее на элементарные составные части цвет и форму ", soft art - " искусство, использующее мягкие материалы ", kinetic art - "искусство, использующее движущиеся предметы (обычно части машин)", luminal art -" искусство, использующее световые эффекты ", optical art (op art) -" искусство, использующее оптические эффекты ", pop art -" поп-арт, поп-искусство " ( non vanguard art which draws images and form of posters , comic books, etc. and create arbitrary combinations of them ), action painting - " живопись, использующая приемы разбрызгивания, нашлепывания красок, revivalism -" школа современной живописи, возвращающаяся к старым формам и приемам живописного искусства. "In 70s further expansion of the vocabulary of the semantic group in connection with the new direction that focuses on the processes occurring in the mind of the artist while creating their works of art. This trend is reflected in the following synonymous neologisms: conceptual art, process art, antifopm art, impossible art. In the 80 -s appeared neologism computer art - "искусство, использующее компьютеры."

In the theatrical life also changes - new types of theaters, and with them new names, for example: theatre of absurd - "театр абсурда", theatre of cruelty - "театр жестокости", son et lumiere (фр. - sound fnd light) - "театр с использованием звуковых и световых эффектов", theatre of fact - "театр факта", black theatre - "негритянский театр" and others among many other neologisms relating to theatrical life, may be mentioned , for example, nouns, as revolve - "вращающаяся сцена" и theatredom - "театральный мир". [42; 344]

In the film, television and video , many new technical means behind them came a large number of neologisms, such as: inflight movies - "кинофильмы, демонстрирующиеся в полете на борту самолета", inflight videosystem - "видеосистема, используемая на борту самолета", serial - "многосерийный фильм с единой фабулой", series - "многосерийный фильм, в котором каждая серия имеет отдельный, законченный сюжет", featurette - "короткометражный документальный фильм", satellite-delivered show - "программа, передаваемая при помощи спутника", HDTV (High Definition Television) - "телевидение высокой четкости изображения", chat show - "интервью с знаменитостью, транслируемое со студии", kidvid - "телепередачи для детей", videoplayer - телевизор для воспроизведения видеозаписей", video cassette - "видеокассета", video-cassette recorder - "видеомагнитофон", video - camera - "видеокамера", video-screen movie - "видеофильм" and others

A large number of neologisms arise in connection with the social changes taking place in the English-speaking countries. Among the most common social phenomena, especially characteristic of the UK, are the so is called feminist movement, i.e. women's movement for equal rights with men. [4; 23-25] Through this movement arose many new lexical items, such as: the Lib Movement - "феминистическое движение", libber, libbie - "участница или сторонница феминистического движения" and etc.

It is interesting to note that in the 70s members of the feminist movement declared English sexist language, i.e. language, female gender discriminatory , since it contains more forms of masculine than feminine (usually because of the word man as a second component names of many professions ) . As a result, the name of the second component -man changed, for example: instead cameraman became increasingly consumed camera operator, instead of firemen - firefighter, instead of policemen - police-officer, instead of the chairman - chairperson, instead Congressman - Congressperson (however, many words with the second component - person -man instead are often used with a touch of humor, irony), instead of businessmen - businesspeople, even in church mankind replaced by people.

At the same time the names of female-dominated occupations are replaced by neutral form, such as is used instead stewardess flight attendant, or, if these professions are busy men to receive the token male, for example: male nurse, male secretary, male exotic dancer, etc.

As a result, combat discrimination against women is the use in writing him / her in cases where a person may be referred to a male or female. Abridged version - s / he - less widely employed.

The same result can be considered a feminist movement forms the introduction Ms [miz], representing a reduction of graphical forms Mrs and Miss, which emphasize the marital status of women. Form Ms, as well as the form of Mr, used in relation to men, this does not include an underscore.

An important aspect of the life of society is the sphere of education. In the UK in 1988 was issued a new education law, known as Gerbil (Great Education Reform Bill). In connection with this law, there are many neologisms , such as : City Technology Colleges - the name of a new kind of schools which are subsidized by the central ( rather than local, as most of the schools of the old type ) education authorities and are selected in children aged 11 years on the basis of examinations received name Standard Assessment Tasks (SATs); grand-maintained status - status name , which are schools like City Technology Colleges and other educational institutions subsidized by the central education authorities ; Teacher Appraisal - evaluation of teachers, according to which he receives a salary ( estimate depends on the number of students in a given teacher and the quality of their training - after exams type SATs, permitting examination results , parents choose their school and teachers for their children , and quality training of students tested with the help of special examinations ); licensed teachers - teachers who do not have higher pedagogical education , but past practice at the school on the basis of basic education and received a certificate which entitles them to educate their children ; star schools, non-star schools terms designating schools for students of different levels of training (this level are determined by entrance examinations , in particular examination type SATs) , etc.

Recently, new methods of teaching , which are designated by the following neologisms : sleep-teaching - " training in a dream ", CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory of Automated School System) - " programmed learning class ", TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) - " system of teaching English as a foreign language ", multimedia lecture - " lecture using multiple media ( VCR, TV , VCR , etc. )", telelecture, telecourse - " training program on television ," etc.

There are new types of educational institutions , such as : megaversity - " a large university , where he taught many thousands of students ", multiversity - " University with lots of faculties ", para-university - " University volunteer ( with free software )", para- school - " school volunteer ."

Instead, the terms student, pupil, were more likely to use the term educatee, schooler; coined the term educationalist - "Specialist (theoretician or practitioner) in the field of education."

English, as well as other languages of the world is enriched by the active vocabulary common to the members of different professions, social groups and ages. [5; 30-31] For example, one need only in the names of various professional jargons spawned many neologisms with the second component -speak: Artsspeak - " jargon artists ", Sportsspeak - " jargon athletes ", Medspeak - " medical jargon ", Teacherspeak - " jargon teachers ", Videospeak -" jargon users video equipment ", Cablespeak -" jargon workers cable television " and other characteristic vocabulary of high society neologisms type dial-a-meal, dial-a-taxi become common knowledge . Became very famous and many of the words and expressions inherent in adolescents, such as: Drugs! - "I agree!"," Good! ", "All Right!" (Used instead of OK), sweat -" long-distance running ", task -" home work ", brunch (short for breakfast + lunch) -" brunch", etc.

1.2 Definition of the term "author neologism"

Before defining the term "neologism ", it should be noted that among scientists there is no consensus on the question: Are the neologism and occasional usage synonyms or treat them as a completely different concept.

For example, Rosen [6; 151] , Lopatin [7; 74] , as well as researchers from several sources [8; 67] consider the terms " neologism " and " occasional usage " synonyms : "Author , individual stylistic occasional neologisms pursue certain artistic goals . They rarely go beyond the context and would not be widely ... The term occasional called facts that do not conform to generally accepted standards of language (from Lat. Occasio - randomness). Occasional words differ in that during their formation violated (usually deliberately, in order expressivity) laws governing the construction of appropriate language units, the rules of language "; [9; 40] "Individually authors neologisms (occasionalisms) - these are the words that form the word artists, publicists, poets to enhance expressivity of the text." [10; 17]

Rosenthal, Golubeva, Telenkova [11; 100] Namitokova [12; 46] believe that " ... the royalties should be distinguished occasionalisms neologisms (Latin occasionalis "accidental") - a word formed "on occasion", under specific conditions of verbal communication and how typically, contradicting language norm deviating from the conventional ways of forming words in the language."

Thus, in order to avoid inaccuracies, we will assume that the author ( individual author ) neologism - a word or meaning of the word , created by writer , poet, publicist to denote new or imaginary phenomena of reality , new or imaginary objects or concepts. Newly invented word author differ from conventional, widely used notation novelty or originality of the inner form of a combination of elements. Author neologisms often become vocabulary units, although the most successful and meaningful communicative or necessary words are adopted language team and get into the vocabulary of a language.

Depending on the purpose of creating and assigning authors neologisms in speech can be divided into nominative and stylistic. First performed in the language purely nominative function, the second ramp will give subjects who already have a name.

Nominative author's occasionalisms arise as the names of new concepts. These words have synonyms usually, though perhaps simultaneous occurrence of competing items, one of which is usually subsequently displaces another.

Stylistic neologisms created as imaginative names of known objects and phenomena. Stylistic neologisms are synonyms, inferior to them in the intensity of expressive color. However, frequent use of neologisms in speech translates them into active vocabulary, neutralizes their stylistic coloring.

Author neoplasms, like all neologisms appear in the language in three ways:

1) by formative derivation - the formation of new words from existing in the known language morphemes (usually productive ) models; the most common methods of forming such neologisms as suffixes , prefixing prefixal- suffix method , adding the basics, often - in conjunction with suffixation , truncate bases (reverse derivation ) fusion and conversion;

2) by semantic derivation , i.e. development in an existing word a new , secondary values on the basis of similarity with the newly designated phenomena phenomenon already known;

3) by borrowing words from other languages or subsystems of the uncodified this language - dialect , colloquialisms , slang.

The book as a source of information to a lesser extent is feedback to the recipient than, for example, magazine, newspaper or Internet media. Thus, the author should more carefully selected language tools and so coded message to the reader, decoding, was able to extract the information that the author wanted to convey to him. Of particular importance to use those or other linguistic resources can have when he not only refers to the native language vocabulary to identify all known concepts , but also invents new words for those phenomena that he first came up and recorded in his work . The author's task - to convey to the reader in the most concise, but the most complete form of the language content of the subject , concept or phenomenon that he is good , but which is unknown to the reader.

Therefore, in this respect, books displayed in practical work piece, are of particular interest. They were written during the last ten years, i.e., directly reflect the processes that occur in modern English. In this study we investigated authors' neologisms - neoplasms, created for a specific purpose, in this case - with the nominative, as they are created to convey the realities of the world of wizards, which are not in our daily lives. [43; 250]

Neologisms authors in books cover a very broad stratum of vocabulary: from very specific objects and actions that are often already have their name (and authors to achieve greater expressiveness invent new words), to name new things and often unrealistic, fantastic characters, including and the substantial, i.e. such, which often do not know anything other than the name. This is done to give greater credibility created world.

1.3 Clarifying values neologism using dictionaries

The main difficulty in the translation of neologisms - it's a new word values clarification. Actually translate the neologism, the value of which is already known to the translator, the task is relatively simpler, and it is solved by using the methods listed below, depending on what type of words belongs to this neologism.

If a new word is not in the English- Russian dictionary, you should try to find it in English- English dictionaries. Many well-known dictionaries there are sections "Новые слова" (New Words Section).

It is recommended to use the most recent editions of dictionaries. Many neologisms can be found in dictionaries and sections devoted to slang.

It should be borne in mind that most quickly prepared and published dictionaries small and medium volume, but because of the limitations of its glossary, they are unable to meet the needs of the professional. Nevertheless, dictionaries for objective reasons cannot fully reflect its entire glossary emerging words, if only because those lexicographers beware dictionaries include the so-called "окказиональные" neologisms, i.e. individual tumors, some authors introduced in this case. Such words are often "non-viable" and just as quickly disappear as appear.

Based on the definition of "neologism" it can be assumed that the translator first meeting neologism itself naturally has no idea about the concept of designated them. Therefore, the value of the neologism often has to figure out from the context. Translation, the context is usually pretty informative. Translating words usually distinguish two stages:

1. clarification of the meaning of a word in context;

2. transfer this value means of translatable language.

In case of transfer of the neologism, as mentioned above, the first step is crucial, and the latter has only a purely technical matter, although it is important to decide the most appropriate methods for translatable language.

Within the context of the general concept narrow context (microcontext) and wider context (macrocontext)? Under the narrow context refers to the context of the sentence, i.e. linguistic units that make up the environment of the unit , not beyond the scope of the proposal; wider context - a set of linguistic units surrounding a given unit within which lie outside of the proposal , in other words , in the adjacent sentences. The exact scope of the broader context cannot be specified - it could be a context group sentence, paragraph, chapter, or even the whole work (e.g. short story, article or novel) as a whole. Very important in clarifying the values of neologisms to take into account just macrocontext, as it may contain "tip."

The narrow context, in turn, can be divided into context syntactic and lexical. Syntactic context - this is syntax in which the word is used, phrase or (subordinate) bid. Lexical context - a set of specific lexical items, words and phrases, which are surrounded by the unit, is found.

Accounting syntactic context will allow the interpreter to determine the identity of the neologism to one of the parts of speech, but in clarifying the values of the neologism is crucial to keeping it lexical context. [13; 34]

New words are usually arising on the basis of already existing in the language of words and morphemes. Analysis of these words and morphemes can have an interpreter of great assistance in understanding the value of the neologism. This requires a good knowledge of word formation processes in English, such as: making existing word more than one value

For example, the word call in English means " "называть", "вызывать, призывать; созывать", "вызов", "телефонный звонок", etc. However, with the development of the exchange business not so long ago he had the new value recorded in dictionaries as " колл, опцион колл "(i.e. the right to buy for a certain period due to securities with pre- payment of the price premium), and the development of banking - " requirement of the bank to the borrower for early repayment of the loan in connection with the violation of its terms."

One of the most ancient, universal and common ways of word-formation in English is compounding, has not lost its activity and now: more than one third of all tumors in the modern English language - complex words. [44; 306]

The process of composition is a juxtaposition of the two bases, usually homonymous word forms. For example, carryback - "перенос убытков на более ранний период", citiplus "инструмент хеджирования, предлагаемый клиентам банком "Ситибэнк" (США)" and etc. Since the norms of modern English language allow the combination of words that have the same lexical and grammatical features that are connected by compounding basis, then determine in which cases the translator has to deal with a complex word - neologism , and in which - with the phrase , it seems quite difficult . Cf. closing bank "банк, завершающий сделку, в которой участвовало несколько банков "closing bank" закрытие банка," etc.

Currently, a number of criteria for distinguishing compound are words and phrases. When translating neologisms in English texts deserves special attention orthographic criterion, the essence of which is to consider all the complex, written together or hyphenated as a compound word, and the complex, whose components are written separately, as the phrase:

dividend-right certificate - "сертификат, дающий право на получение дивиденда",

dear-money policy - "ограничение кредита путем повышения процентных ставок",

fill-or-kill order - "приказ клиента брокеру, который должен быть немедленно исполнен или аннулирован".

In cases where the combined words ending and beginning with the same vowel or consonant, one of them falls: net + etiquette = netiquette "unwritten customary rules of communication or posting information on the Internet."

However, it should be noted that this is not the rule:

Some sections of the American press are upping the case still further by using an even more emotive term "cyberrape", to describe the actions of Jake Baker, a 20 -year-old American student.

Some American Publishing stokes using more emotionally loaded term "cyber - rape" for the actions of twenty American student Jake Baker.

Nevertheless, it should be noted that in many cases there is an inconsistency in writing even of the same complex. For example, in the case of man-made "artificial, man-made" 6% - separate writing, 82% - with a hyphen, 12% - fused spelling. [45]

Analysis of the components that make up the compound word, gives interpreter to knowing their lexical meaning, figure out the meaning of the whole complex:

Graphite bombing caused power lines destruction turning off life- supports in Belgrade hospitals (Fox News Direct, 1999). as we can see neologism life-supports consists of two parts life (" life " ), and support ( "Support" ) , then we are talking about something that allows you to maintain life or vitality , and the suffix -s indicates that we are dealing with countable nouns in the plural form . Thus, taking into account the context, this neologism can be translated as "life-support equipment."

During the bombing of graphite bombs were damaged power lines that caused the disconnection of life support equipment in hospitals in Belgrade.

For a correct understanding of the meaning of neologisms formed in this way the interpreter must know the productive affixes [14] in modern English language and be able to correctly divide the word into its components : kiteflyer - " payee under fictitious bill , the user fictitious bills " (cf. fly kites " use bogus checks to obtain funds to their collection " ) .

Very often when a similar method for forming neologisms has a satirical painting, especially in the press: ... that they taste the same in Peking as they do in London or New York, and so it was that world burgernomics was born by McDonald's.

In this case, the author wishes to draw attention to the significant development of a chain of restaurants "McDonalds" fast food industry, which has its own laws and phenomena and, like other economic laws are equally valid in different countries:

Beijing ... that they taste the same as in London or New York, that's it, "McDonald's" created a world gamburgernomic.

Conversion function is called transition words from one part of speech another, i.e. the use of the same words as various parts of speech. However, some scientists (AI Smirnickii VN Yartseva) [15; 167] consider the conversion of the act of derivation, formed when producing their homonymous word databases, but differ from them paradigms. For example, now the Internet can often be seen E-mail me / us to ... Clarifying values such neologism is not difficult. Syntactic context makes it possible to determine the membership of a word to a transitive verb, and knowing the meaning of the word E-mail (electronic mail) transfer: Please send an e- mail to.

Then his telephoning rang, or rather squeaked piercingly. It is impossible to get away from the wretched telephoning wherever you are in Italy. Of all the countries in Europe, only Britain has more mobile telephones.

Then the phone rang, or rather shrill squeak of his mini- phone. No matter what part of Italy you are, you cannot escape from these pesky telephoning. Of all European countries, more mobile phones in the UK.

The Soviets had Sputnik, but the Americans had their open-plan kitchen. No contest.

The Soviet Union created the "Satellite", and the Americans have created an open kitchen. Apart from the competition.

Contact derivation is the process of education by truncating the suffix verbs from nouns correlative type televise "televise" on television "TV"

Fusion - a compound or a truncated root of one word to a whole word or a combination of two truncated roots: forex reserve (forex = foreign + exchange) - "foreign exchange reserves ", impex transactions (impex = import + export) - "export-import transaction."

Among the existing species of this method of derivation , special attention should partially abbreviated acronyms , the essence of which is the acronym of one of the components, e.g., B-unit (Barclays currency unit) " international currency bank" Barclays Bank international ", Fed Wire -" electronic communication system of the Federal Reserve banks ( USA) "

1.4 Translation of neologisms

Neologisms - new words is appearing in the language as a result of various changes in society, culture, science and art. Should distinguish between two kinds of neologisms, new words and new meanings that emerged from the "old" words. Both species are difficult to translate, because such words and meanings cannot be found in ordinary English- Russian dictionaries and cannot always be found even in the newest English- English dictionaries. Every translator is well known that any dictionary lags in the registration of new words and meanings, at least for several years. Enough, to compare the dictionaries before the Second World War and the postwar period is to make in stark contrast. However, the backlog dictionary - this is not the most serious problem for the translator.

Another factor hindering the registration neologisms as in the Anglo- Russian and in English- English dictionaries is their temporary, fleeting existence in a language that is observed the same phenomenon as in slang. Neologisms and other figurative words and phrases , as well as slengisms born so rapidly , especially in the language of journalism, science and technology, which, according to I.R. Halperin , " no dictionary cannot , nor should immediately fix their appearance " [16; 15] That is why many neologisms English lexicographers called " occasional " , i.e. Using an unusual accident. The " occasional " is further enhanced in those cases when the neologism is a new word from slang , that is from the area of language, which in general, as noted above, is characterized by high variability .

How did the translator do in those cases - when he meets with a neologism? First of all it is necessary to understand the value of the neologism itself based on the context and analysis of its structure. Be verifying that the difficulties of translation of neologisms, consider some examples. Phrases I can dig it; do you dig this song? cannot be translated on the basis of the usual meaning of the verb to dig. Just open the dictionary "The American Heritage", you find the following meaning of the verb to dig, is not registered in other dictionaries earlier year of publication: to comprehend, to appreciate, to enjoy (slang), that is translated into Russian: understand, evaluate, please. Translation of the above proposals, therefore, would be: I love it; Do you like this song. Further study of the etymology of the verb to dig shows that in its meaning it came from the jargon of the Beat (the beat jargon), and then was picked up by the media, resulting in the moment this value to dig became widely known. Consequently, in this case, the translator retrieves the desired value based on the context and a dictionary.

In another case, it may help the root structure of the word. Word peacenik relatively recently appeared in the English language. BARS of the word do not. [16, 15] How did it move? Breaking the word into two parts peace + nik is easy to guess that the nik - is the suffix for forming nouns. Influenced by Russian suffix (cf. sputnik, lunik) in English words of this kind began to appear more often. Consequently, peacenik is this peaceful demonstrator, the demonstrators, a fighter for peace. The same can be said about the term nixonomics. So American journalists dubbed the economic policies of former U.S. President Nixon. First, this term was used only jokingly, but now it is already quite widely used in printing and it can be found even in official texts. [17; 69-72]

Here are some more examples. Adjective "heavy" lately used in colloquial speech, not only in the sense of "тяжелый" but in the sense of "сильный ", "веский" (e.g., that's a heavy idea-это убедительная идея.) Word "bust" in the United States recently began to be used in the sense of "сделать налет", "арестовать" (Charlie got busted last night - Чарли вчера арестовали; a dope bust - облава на торговцев наркотиками) , and also in the sense of "сделать ошибку", "проваливаться", и, наконец, в значении "нарушать", "урезать" (to bust prices - резко снизить цены). Word "hassle" word as a neologism colloquially used to mean trouble, bother (don" t hassle me = don "t bother me). Lately, however, it became increasingly used in the sense "проблема", "трудность" (that's a real hassle of his - да это у него серьезная проблема).

With advertising, the word "put down" was as a neologism is "отвергать", especially in the form of critical (or offensive) remarks. ("The American Heritage") The same can be said about the word strung-out. The dictionary Mueller [18] "to string out" - "растягиваться вереницей." Later the word strung-out apparently formed a new meaning:"избитый ", "изувеченный", "изуродованный" (He is really strung-out). Neologisms as synonyms here can also cause the following: spaced, wasted, wrecked. (He was wasted in Vietnam. He was wrecked in Vietnam. He was killed in Vietnam. - Он был убит во Вьетнаме)

Close this group synonymous words neologism is "trash". In the modern use of this word in the United States it has acquired , in particular, to "разрушать", "уродовать", "портить", "громить" (e.g., to trash a building = to destroy a building - разрушать здание; to go out trashing = to go out for things to destroy - заниматься порчей имущества (сооружений)) .

Relatively recently, the vocabulary of the English language in the United States added the neologism "rip off" with the basic meaning "своровать", "украсть", "стащить", "опустошить". In addition, the verb "to rip off" is sometimes used to mean "домогаться денег" (radical groups ripping off the promoters of rock concerts - (молодежные) радикальные группы, которые пытаются "выколотить" денежки у организаторов концертов ультрасовременной музыки). Perhaps, therefore, a new phrase rips off artist - мастер на все руки, ловкач, пройдоха, (syn) shifty person.

Finally, mention should be made about the use of the neologism "rip-off" in the sense of "убийство", "расправа" (You never know. He's going to get ripped off one of these days. - Как знать. Его когда-нибудь могут прикончить) . Of course, these values may not be known not only to the novice translator , but also by many English speakers , detached from the scope of slang , "language" or jargon hippie youth.

Word "gig" relatively widely used in the new meaning of "работа" (job) (I've got a gig on Saturday. - В субботу мне удалось найти работу). Especially often this value is used in speech neologism American musicians (a newgig = a new occupation - новое занятие). Word "jive" is, perhaps, partly superseded word nonsense (Don't give that jive. - Кончай говорить этот вздор.) This phrase can be heard in the speech of young people. Verb "Jive" often used in speech as meaning "шутить" (You`ve just jiving me, man. - Да ты меня, я вижу, разыгрываешь).

Other most widely known neologisms 70s are: "dude" meaning "человек, парень" (He's a nice dude. - Он славный малый) and "cat", which is often used to mean "паренек", "браток", "братишка". During this plural noun is used to mean "ребята", "парни". (There are some really fine cats in that band! - В этом оркестре - отличные ребята!) "The American Heritage" as slang "cat" gives the following values: a man - "человек". In the political language "fat cats" - is the "денежные мешки", "лица, оказывающие щедрую финансовую поддержку политическим кандидатам?"

Word "Cool" as a neologism used in the sense of "успокоиться", "взять себя в руки". In this connection there idiom "cool it", which means "успокойся", "потише", "не трепыхайся". It is synonymous with literary relax, calm down, restrain yourself. Word "Stoned" often used in the sense of "одурманить наркотиками" (get stoned, get high, get wrecked); groove on - "наслаждаться" (I can really groove on the Beatles. - наслаждаюсь, слушая ансамбль "Битлз"); cosmic-"потрясающий" (cosmic idea! - потрясающе!); out of sight - "фантастический"; goof on-"смеяться", "насмехаться над кем-либо" (Charlie's just goofing on you. - Чарли просто смеется над вами); bummer-"неудачный опыт"; shuck-"надувательский" (he's shuck, he's shucking - ему верить нельзя). Word "Shuck" used instead of the usual word for such situations "phony"; get it on (or get down) instead of the verb "to commence" - начинать (Get down to it. - Давай, начинай).

Word "commune" for a long time was used in the British and American speech in the following meanings:

1) historical community;

2) county, the lowest territorial unit of self-government (in France, Belgium, Italy and other countries);

3) The Commune - Парижская коммуна (also the Commune of Paris). American hippies now use the word to mean "группа людей, проживающих совместно за счет тех средств, которыми располагают все члены этой группы".

Word "cop" (short for copper - police) has several slang meanings, such as "украсть", "стащить"; cop it - "получить нагоняй". These values are well known. However neologism "cop out" yet is not registered anywhere. Question Do you cop out? - Ты избегаешь этого? typically used in a specific situation, it can be heard, e.g., in a speech fighters social and civil law.

Neologism "counterculture" can deliver a lot of trouble to the translator. Word involuntarily perceived as consisting of two elements: counter + culture, i.e. "контр культура". However, this interpretation of the word counterculture would be a mistake. In fact, in modern English, in the U.S. the words synonymous with "стиль жизни", especially if we bear in mind the difference between the new styles from traditional forms of American life. [19; 82-84]

Expression "To go straight" literally means "идти прямо." Recently, the expression came to be used figuratively to mean "встать на честный путь", "жить как все нормальные люди", "образумиться". "The American Heritage" gives the following interpretation of this expression "to go straight" (informal) = to reform after having been a criminal - "изменить свое поведение, отбыв заключение".

During further reconsideration, or, more precisely, the use of this phrase in "language" hippies, beatniks, and other similar elements it has acquired a slightly different meaning: "порвать с дурной привычкой", "покончить (с наркотиками) ". (You know, he goes straight now. - Вы знаете, он "завязал")

Extremely difficult to translate the word can be multivalued "head". This word is actually hundreds of values. In the field of youth slang, the word has taken on new meaning "head", have never been registered, "чудак", "чудаковатый", "потребитель наркотиков". (Ср. acid head, pot-head - наркоман). Literature is synonymous with the word addict or drug-user.

Speaking of neologisms, it is not to mention also words like psychedelic, scene, shades, soul brother, trucking, vibes, and rap. The word psychedelic is used in speech for a new social "movement" in the United States. Representative of this "movement" is some of America's youth, which bored bourgeois culture and who is looking out of the impasse, rushing, however, at the other extreme - the world of "hallucinations". This word can be translated as "вызывающий галлюцинации" (e.g., psychedelic music).

Word "scene" in colloquial American speech is not used in the conventional sense "сцена", but most often as a "место действия", "опыт". "Soul brother" literally is translated as "душевный брат", "добрая душа". In fact, in the speech of the American Negro word "soul brother" usually appears instead of the word black. Word trucking (literally " truckage ") in colloquial speech is now used to mean "перевозка на грузовиках," that is, instead of "take a walk" (to truck = to walk jauntily - идти развязной походкой) [35; 166-167]