Modern English Grammar

A few typical examples to illustrate the statement are given below. Others will readily occur to the student.

And in Soames, looking on his father so worn and white and wasted, listening to his strangled breathing, there rose a passionate vehemence of anger against Nature, cruel, inexorable Nature, kneeling on the chest of that wisp of a body, slowly pressing out the breath, pressing out the life of the being who was dearest to him in the world. His father, of all men, had lived a careful life, moderate, abstemious, and this was his reward-- to have life slowly, painfully squeezed out of him. (Galsworthy)

...It had been the old England, when they lived down yet here -- the England of packhorses and very little smoke, of peat and wood fires, and wives who never left you, because they couldn't, probably. A static England, that dug and wove; where your parish was your world, and you were a churchwarden if you didn't take care. (Galsworthy)

It is to be noted that the use of the article with abstract noun has its own idiosyncratic traits in English and presents special difficulties for a foreign student to master.

Contrasting use of the article, depending on the context, the meaning of noun adjuncts in particular, is often an effective means to produce emphasis in pictorial language, e. g.:

The river was whitening; the dusk seemed held in the trees, waiting to spread and fly into a sky just drained of sunset. Very peaceful, and a little rie -- the hour between! Those starlings made a racket -- disagreeable beggars; there could be no real self-respect with such short tails! The swallows went by, taking 'night-caps' on guats and early moths; and the poplars stood so still -- just as if listening -- that Soames put his hand to feel for breeze. Not a breath? And then, all at once -- no swallows flying, no starlings; a chalky hue over river, over sky! The lights sprang up in the house. A night-flying beetle passed him, booming. The dew was failing -- he felt it, must go in. And as he turned, quickly, dusk softened the trees, the sky, the river. (Galsworthy)

Here is a good example to show how effective is the repetitive use of nouns with the definite article for stylistic purposes in narration:

It was hot that night. Both she and her mother had put on thin, pale low frocks. The dinner flowers were pale. Fleur was struck with the pale look of everything; her father's face, her mother's shoulders; the pale panelled walls, the pale grey velvety carpet, the lamp-shade, even the soup was pale. There was not one spot of colour in the room, not even wine in the pale glasses, for no one drank it. What was not pale was black --her father's clothes, the butler's clothes, her retriever stretched out exhausted in the window, the curtains black with a cream pattern. A moth came in, and that was pale. And silent was that half-mourning dinner in the heat...

Her father called her back as she was following her mother out. She sat down beside him at me table, ana, unpinning the pale honeysuckle, put it to her nose. (Galsworthy)

The repetitive use of the definite article with abstract nouns is an effective means to intensify their emotive flavour in a given context. Examples are numerous:

Think of the needy man who has spent his all, beggared himself and pinched his friends, to enter the profession, which will never yield him a morsel of bread. The waiting --the hope --the disappointment --the fear -- the misery -- the poverty -- the blight on his hopes, and end to his career -- the suicide perhaps, or the shabby, slip-shod drunkard. (Dickens)

Observe also the use of the definite article with proper nouns for stylistic purposes in the following sentences:

Why should not the able and wonderful Cowperwood be allowed to make the two of them rich? (Dreiser)

Aunt Hester, the silent, the patient, that backwater of the family energy, sat in the drawing-room, where the blinds were drawn; and she too, had wept at first, but quietly, without visible effect... She sat, slim, motionless, studying the grate, her hands idle in the lap of her black silk dress. (Galsworthy)

If Liz was my girl and I was to sneak out to a dance coupled up with an Annie, I'd want a suit of chain armour on under my gladsome rags. (Henry)

The use of the article with common and proper nouns is often an effective means of expressive connotation, e. g.:

"...Know my partner? Old Robinson". "Yes, the Robinson. Don't you know? The notorious Robinson". (Conrad)

"...How goes it?"

"All well" said Mr. Gills pushing the bottle towards him.

He took it up and having surveyed and smelt it said with extraordinary expression:

"The?"

"The", returned the instrument maker. Upon that he whistled as he filled his glass and seemed to think they were making holiday, indeed. (Dickens)

Instances are not few when the omission of the article is also a matter of stylistic considerations in narration, in free and easy colloquial style or, say, represented speech in literary prose.

See how the use of the nouns without the article is in harmony with the structure of the following sentences:

It had a simple scheme -- white pony in stable, pigeon picking up some grains, smallboy on upturned basket eating apple. (Galsworthy) There was a drowsy hum of very distant traffic; the creepered trellis round the garden shut out everything but sky, and house, and pear-tree, with its top branches still gilded by the sun. (Galsworthy)

Engine, wheels and carriages came within a few yards, ripping the view into tatters of blue sky and field, each in a decimated second dancing between the carriage-gaps.

A word must be said about a distinct trend in modern English syntax is the omission of the definite and indefinite articles in various ways familiar to students of English and other European languages.

The loss of the definite article has affected certain specific phrases, e. g.:

go to university for go to the university

all morning for all the morning

all winter for all the winter

all week for all the week, etc.

a majority of ... seems to replace the majority of ...

It is difficult to see anything to be gained by the change so far as distinction of meaning is concerned, since the old and new uses appear to be synonymous ¹.

Revision Material

Be ready to discuss the basic assumptions for the definition of parts of speech as the taxonomic classes of words.

Comment on oppositional relations between different parts of speech.

Give comments on the interparadigmatic homonymy as being relevant to structural ambiguity in Modern English.

Get ready to discuss the opposition "oneness -- plurality" as being expressed in Modern English.

Comment on functional transpositions of singular forms in the category of number.

Be ready to discuss the problem of case in Modern English.

Comment on the polysemy of the possessive case.

Give comments on the synonymic "encounter" of the 's-genitive and the of-phrase.

Describe the distributional value of the of-phrase in Modern English.

Give illustrative examples of stylistic transpositions in the grammar of nouns. Compare similar developments in other languages.

Comment on the use of the group-genitive in Modern English.

Be ready to give comments on the linguistic change going on in present-day English in the use of the 's-genitive at the expense of the of-phrase.

Be ready to discuss the problem of the article in Modern English.

Give comments on the absence of the article functioning as a term in the article system.

Variations in the use of the articles and their significant absence must be examined in the grammatical environment in which nouns occur. The meaning of the article reveals itself in actual speech. Can you give a few examples to illustrate the statement?

Difficulties often arise when the presence and absence of the article signals contrasted structural relationships. Give examples to illustrate the statement.

Review your knowledge of the stylistic functions of the articles in Modern English.

¹ See: B. Fоster. The Changing English Language. Great Britain, 1971.

Chapter IV THE ADJECTIVE

An adjective is a word which expresses the attributes of substances (good, young, easy, soft, loud, hard, wooden, flaxen). As a class of lexical words adjectives are identified by their ability to fill the position between noun-determiner and noun and the position after a copula-verb and a qualifier.

Considered in meaning, adjectives fall into two large groups:

qualitative adjectives,

relative adjectives.

Qualitative adjectives denote qualities of size, shape, colour, etc. which an object may possess in various degrees. Qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison.

Relative adjectives express qualities which characterise an object through its relation to another object; wooden tables > tables made of wood, woollen gloves > gloves made of wool, Siberian wheat > wheat from Siberia. Further examples of relative adjectives are: rural, industrial, urban, etc.

Linguistically it is utterly impossible to draw a rigid line of demarcation between the two classes, for in the course of language development the so-called relative adjectives gradually develop qualitative meanings. Thus, for instance, through metaphoric extension adjectives denoting material have come to be used in the figurative sense, e. g.: golden age золотий вік, golden hours щасливий час, golden mean золота середина, golden opportunity чудова нагода, golden hair золотаве волосся, etc. Compare also: wooden chair and wooden face, wooden manners; flaxen threads and flaxen hair.

The adjective leaden -- made of lead is often used with special allusion to its qualities. Cf. a leaden plate and a leaden sleep, leaden atmosphere, leaden sky. Through metaphoric extension leaden has also come to mean "low in quality", "cheap", "heavy" or "dull" inaction, in feeling, understanding, etc. synonymous with sluggish млявий. Analogous developments may easily be found in other languages.

It seems practical to distinguish between base adjectives and derived adjectives ¹.

Base adjectives exhibit the following formal qualities: they may take inflections -er and -est or have some morphophonemic changes in cases of the suppletion, such as, for instance, in good --better --the best; bad -- worse -- the worst. Base adjectives are also distinguished formally by the fact that they serve as stems from which nouns and adverbs are formed by the derivational suffixes -ness and -ly.

Base adjectives are mostly of one syllable, and none have more than two syllables except a few that begin with a derivational prefix un-or in-, e. g.: uncommon, inhuman, etc. They have no derivational suffixes and usually form their comparative and superlative degrees by means of the inflectional suffixes -er and -est. Quite a number of based adjectives form verbs by adding the derivational suffix -en, the prefix en- or both: blacken, brighten, cheapen, sweeten, widen, enrich, enlarge, embitter, enlighten, enliven, etc.

Derived adjectives are formed by the addition of derivational suffixes to free or bound stems. They usually form analytical comparatives and superlatives by means of the qualifiers more and most. Some of the more important suffixes which form derived adjectives are:

-able added to verbs and bound stems, denoting quality with implication of capacity, fitness or worthness to be acted upon; -able is often used in the sense of "tending to", "given to", "favouring", "causing", "able to" or "liable to". This very common suffix is a live one which can be added to virtually any verb thus giving rise to many new coinages. As it is the descendant of an active derivational suffix in Latin, it also appears as a part of many words borrowed from Latin and French. Examples formed from verbs: remarkable, adaptable, conceivable, drinkable, eatable, regrettable, understandable, etc.; examples formed from bound stems: capable, portable, viable. The unproductive variant of the suffix -able is the suffix -ible (Latin -ibilis, -bilis), which we find in adjectives Latin in origin: visible, forcible, comprehensible, etc.; -ible is no longer used in the formation of new words.

-al, -ial (Lat. -alls, French -al, -el) denoting quality "belonging to", "pertaining to", "having the character of", "appropriate to", e. g.: elemental, bacterial, automnal, fundamental, etc.

The suffix -al added to nouns and bound stems (fatal, local, natural, national, traditional, etc.) is often found in combination with -ic, e. g.: biological, botanical, juridical, typical, etc.

-ish --Germanic in origin, denoting nationality, quality with the meaning "of the nature of", "belonging to", "resembling" also with the sense "somewhat like", often implying contempt, derogatory in force, e. g.: Turkish, bogish, outlandish, whitish, wolfish.

-y -- Germanic in origin, denoting quality "pertaining to", "abounding in", "tending or inclined to", e.g.: rocky, watery, bushy, milky, sunny, etc.

THE CATEGORY OF INTENSITY AND COMPARISON

Grammarians seem to be divided in their opinion as to the linguistic status of degrees of comparison of adjectives formed by means of more and (the) most. In books devoted to teaching grammar the latter are traditionally referred to as analytical forms. But there is also another view based only on form and distribution according to which more and (the) most are referred to as ordinary qualifiers and formations like more interesting and the most interesting which go parallel with such free word-groups as less interesting and the least interesting are called phrasal comparatives and superlatives. Attention is then drawn to the fact that more and most may also easily combine with nouns, e. g.: more attention, more people, most people, etc.

This is, in fact, an old discussion, dating back at least as far as H. Sweet as to whether the morphemes of comparison -er, -est are inflections or suffixes. H. Sweet spoke of them as inflectional but considered such formations almost as much a process derivation as of inflection.

More important that this difficulty in terminology are some other points about adjectives.

Distinction will be made between qualitative adjectives which have "gradable" meanings and those which have "absolute" meanings.

A thing can, for instance, be more of less narrow, and narrow is a gradable adjective for which corresponding gradations will be expressed either by analytical or, when style demands, by inflected forms: narrow -- narrower -- the narrowest narrow -- more narrow -- the most narrow

Contrasted to adjectives with such "gradable" meanings are qualitative adjectives with "absolute" meaning, e. g.: real, equal, perfect, right, etc. These are, in their referents, incapable of such gradations. Unmodified, they mean the absolute of what they say. With more and most or when inflected they mean "more nearly real", "nearest of all to being real", "more nearly equal" or "nearest of all to being equal", etc.

Analytical and inflected forms of comparison cannot be referred to as always absolutely identical in function. The structure of the analytical form permits contrastive stress-shifts and is therefore preferable when occasion demands. Stress on more and most will focus attention on the notion of degree, and stress on the adjective will make the lexical content of the adjective more prominent. Compare the following: (1) He is healthier than his brother. (2) He is more healthy than his brother. (3) He is more healthy, but less capable.

A universal feature in the grammar of adjectives is the absolute use of comparatives and superlatives. These forms are sometimes used where there is no direct comparison at all, as in: The better part of valour is discretion (Shakespeare); a better-class cafe, sooner or later (The Short Oxford Dictionary), etc. Cf.: вища освіта, продукти кращої якості, etc.

Similarly in German:

ein alterer Mann літня людина --ein alter Mann стара людина.

eine grossere Stadi невелике місто --eine grosse Stadt велике місто.

The grammatical content of the superlative degree is that of degree of a property surpassing all other objects mentioned or implied by the context or situation. There are cases, however, when the meaning of the superlative comes to be essentially different, and only aсvery high degree of quality or property is meant, with no comparison at all. This is the so-called "elative" (Lat. gradus elativus), e. g.: I should do it with the greatest pleasure.

Further examples are:

He's got the most beautiful mother, with lovely silvery hair and a young face with dark eyes. (Galsworthy)

"It's most distasteful to me", he said suddenly. " Nothing could be more so". (Galsworthy)

"My health is better for it", he added hastily. "And I am very happy, most happy". (London)

Absolute superlatives will be found in such patterns in Ukrainian as: в найкоротший термін, в найкращому настрої, наймиліша людина. Cf. Russian: величайший ученый, милейший человек, в наилучшем настроении, в кратчайший срок, etc. Similarly in German: in bester Stimmung, in kurzester Zeit, liebster Freund. French: Cette chere enfant! soupira la maitresse de pension de sa voix la plus tendre. (France).

It is of interest to note that in certain contexts the comparative degree of adjectives may function as a stylistic alternative of "absolute superlative". The highest degree of quality comes to be expressed here by comparative contrast. The use of such "comparative elatives'' is highly effective and colourful, e. g.:

Could a man own anything prettier than this dining table with its deep tints, the starry, soft-petalled roses, the ruby coloured glass, and quaint silver furnishing; could a man own anything prettier than the woman who sat at it? (Galsworthy)

Look at her sitting there. Doesn't she make a picture? Chardin, eh? I've seen all the most beautiful women in the world; I've never seen anyone more beautiful than Madame Dirk Stroeve. (Maugham)

...Into a denser gloom than ever Bosinney held on at a furious pace; but his pursuer perceived more method in his madness -- he was clearly making his way westwards. (Galsworthy)

...In his leisure hours he played the piccolo. No one in England was more reliable.

..."He's imaginative, Yolyon."

"Yes, in a sanguinary way. Does he love anyone just now?"

"No; only everyone. There never was anyone born more loving or more lovable than Jon."

"Being your boy, Irene." (Galsworthy)

Intensification of a qualitative meaning expressed by adjectives may be produced by:

1) adverbial intensifiers: much, a great deal, far, by far, far and away, yet, still and all, e. g.: much better, still further, all hot and bothered, all blocdy;

He is far the most distinguished student in the group.

This week was by far the busiest we have ever had.

He was far and away the best example to follow.

Similar in function are such intensifiers in Russian as: намного, куда, все, еще, etc.

Similarly in Ukrainian: набагато, ще, далеко, куди.

Ще щедріше було сонце. Куди краще були успіхи нашої експедиції.

2) grammatical pleonasms: a) deafer than deaf, whiter than white; b) the whitest of the white, the greenest of the green.

Every little colony of houses has its church and school-house peeping from among the white roofs and shady trees; every house is the whitest of the white; every Venetian blind the greenest of the green; every fine day's sky the bluest of the blue. (Dickens)

Compare the Ukrainian: чистіше чистого, легше легкого, ясніше ясного, etc.; similarly in Russian: чище чистого, слаще сладкого, яснее ясного, etc.

3) the combination of a Superlative with an of-phrase which renders the meaning of a partitive genitive, e. g.: Chekhov is the greatest of all writers of short stories. Patterns of this kind are fairly common in expressive language.

"Of all things in the world don't you think caution's the most awful? Smell the moonlight!" She thrust the blossom against his face; Jon agreed giddily that of all things in the world caution was the worst, and bending over kissed the hand which held his. (Galsworthy)

4) the idiomatic variety of the partitive genitive, e. g.: Beauty is the wonder of all wonders. (Wilde)

Scarlet jerked her hands away from his grasp and sprang to her feet", "I --you are the most ill-bred man in the world, coming here at this time of all times with your filthy -- I should have known you'd never change. (Mitchell)

Further examples are: a patriot of patriots, a word of words, a hero of heroes. Analogous examples in Ukrainian: диво з див, герой з героїв, хоробрий з хоробрих, etc. Cf. Russian: чудо из чудес, герой из героев, храбрец из храбрецов, красавица из красавиц, etc. French: le miracle des miracles; German: der Held der Helden.

the variant form of the partitive genitive, e. g.: lawyers' lawyers (= the best of all lawyers), an actor's actor (= the best of all actors), similarly, a ballplayer's ballplayer.

the of-phrase in the function of the so-called "genitivus qualitatis", a universal development in most languages.

Synonymous with adjectives proper, modification structures of this type abound in literary use. The linguistic essence of the structure is to render the idea of quality through the relationship of one object to the other.

«Многие различные вещи состоят в существенном взаимодействии через свои свойства; свойство есть самое взаимодействие» ¹.

Examples are: a look of joy = a joyful look, a man of energy = an energetic man, a thing of great importance = a very important thing, writers of great repute -- very reputable writers, a glance of contempt -- a contemptuous glance, a thing of great value = a valuable thing, a man of genius (Cf. arch. genial), etc.

Compare analogous structures in other languages. Russian: вопрос большой важности -- очень важный вопрос; человек большой эрудиции -- очень эрудированный человек. Ukrainian: справа великого значення -- дуже важлива справа; людина великого розуму --дуже розумна людина (the so-called) «родовий означальний». French: affaire d'importance = affaire importante, bijoux de pris = bijou precieux; une affaire d'urgence = une affaire urgente; un jardin de beaute = un beau jardin. German: die Sache von grosser Wichtigkeit = eine sehr wichtige Sache.

Genitivus qualitatis is used to express more complex and more subtle shades of meaning than ordinary adjectives do. The diversity of their use for stylistic purposes in various languages should not escape our notice.

She conceived of delights which were not, saw lights of joy that never were on land or sea. (Dreiser).

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us... (Dickens)

7) noun-phrases N + I_self --a stylistic alternative of the absolute superlative degree (so-called "elative"), e. g.:

Mr. Pickwick is kindness itself. You are patience itself = You are most patient. She was prudence itself -- She was most prudent.

Phrases of this sort are more forceful and expressive that the respective adjective in the superlative degree. Such structures of predication are good evidence of the fact that quality in some cases can be expressed more effectively by a noun than an adjective.

8) noun-phrases all + N:

She is all patience, you're all activity.

She is all goodness (Cf. She is very good). He is all nerves. (Cf. He is very nervous).

He was all the kindest consideration (Cf. He was most considerate).

The use of nouns instead of adjectives gives added emphasis to the given quality. Consider also the following example:

June stood in front, fending off his idle curiosity -- a little bit of a thing as somebody once said -- all hair and spirit, with fear less blue eyes, a firm jaw, and a bright colour, whose face and body seemed to slender, for her crown of her red-gold hair. (Galsworthy)