Modern English Grammar

infinitival phrases: a thing to do = a thing to be done; the house to let, a book to read, etc.

gerundial phrases:

The house needs repairing.

My shoes want mending.

phrasal verbs of analytical structure.

prepositional noun-phrases.

Phrasal-verbs of analytical structure type VN function with rather a high frequency value as stylistic alternatives of bе-passive and get-passive. A few typical examples are given below. Others will readily occur to the student.

to find expression to be expressed

to find favour to be favoured

to find reflection to be reflected

to find support to be supported

to find solution to be solved

to win recognition to be recognised

to gain respect to be respected

to get publicity to be published

to receive a study to be studied

to receive criticism to be criticised

to receive recognition to be recognised

to receive punishment to get punished

In infinite cases such formations verge on the "quasi-grammatical" and serve, in fact, rather grammatical than lexical purposes. They carry grammatical information of voice distinction, moreover, this is often the dominant feature of their linguistic status revealed with sufficient evidence in regular Oppositional relations between simple and phrasal verbs and between phrasal verbs themselves. The relevance of many phrasal verbs to the voice-field is most obvious. Compare:

Active Passive

to attend to pay attention to receive attention

to help to give help to find help

to support to lend support to find support

to offend to give offence to suffer offence

to credit to give credence to find credence

to defeat to inflict a defeat to suffer a defeat

to publish to give publicity to get publicity

Phrasal verbs approach analytical forms: one of the components has lexical meaning, the second, a function verb, is semantically depleted and comes to function as a semi-copulative verb. In their linguistic status phrasal verbs remain, in fact, on the borderline between syntax and morphology. The process of converting notional words into lexico-grammatical morphemes is most active in this area.

Verbs which are part of such analytical structures differ semantically. Some of them are synonymically related in the English vocabulary irrespective of the context. Others are synonymous only in combination with certain nounal components.

to gain attention -- to get attention -- to receive attention; to win recognition -- to get recognition -- to receive recognition

-- to gain recognition.

Most frequent are such verbs as: get, obtain, receive, find, gain, win, undergo.

We also find here such verbs as: achieve, attain, earn, escape, demand, claim, require, suffer, endure, deserve, merit.

Overlapping of Oppositional relations of voice and aspect is not infrequent. Consider the following for illustration:

Active Passive

Common Aspect Inchoative Aspect

to suspect to fall under suspicion

to despise to fall into contempt

to observe to fall under observation

Actions of Single Occurrence

Active Active Passive

to laugh to give a laugh to receive a laugh to eye to give the eye to get the eye

to hug to give a hug to receive a hug

In such lexico-grammatical oppositions one member (the "marked" member) signals the presence of the aspectual meaning, while the "unmarked" member may either signal "absence of marked meaning" or else be noncommittal as to its absence or presence.

These two volumes comprised all the short stories he had written, and which had received or were receiving serial publication. (London)

Not being as attractive as Doyle, it was not so easy for him to win the attention of girls. (Dreiser)

She was a cold, self-centred woman, with many a thought of her own which never found expression, not even by so much as the glint of an eye. (Dreiser)

There is a close parallel to this development in other languages. Such structural elements in the English verbal system merit consideration not only in terms of their synonymic correlation with a simple verb of similar meaning. Formations of this kind are most evidently relevant to the problem of covert grammar, implicit predication, in particular.

Synonymic correlation of simple and phrasal verbs of kindred meaning merits attention in different spheres of usage. Such linguistic units are organically related and constantly aiding to and supporting each other in communication. And this is fairly universal. The choice between simple and phrasal verbs predetermines to a great extent the structural pattern of the sentence ¹. Consituation and considerations of style in the nominal-verbal contrast will generally determine the selection of grammatical forms in the organisation of the message.

Examine the grammatical organisation of the text in the following sentences with nominality adapted to its purpose in each case:

Everyone was out in their Slab Square, perambulating to either get or give the eye; perhaps in an odd moment stopping to hear a few words of admonition from Sally's Army... (Sillitoe)

Having given and received another hug, he mounted the window seat, and tucking his legs under him watched her unpack. (Galsworthy)

This last was the shock Jon received coming thus on his mother. (Galsworthy)

The speed with which Joe worked won Martin's admiration. (London)

The passive field includes also patterns with prepositional noun-phrases functioning as substitutes for ordinary passive forms of the verb.

Formations of this kind contribute significantly to the development of grammatical synonymy in sentence structure. In such syntactic patterns we find, for instance, nominal phrases with the prepositions above, at, beyond, in, on, out of, past, under, within, without. A few typical examples are:

beyond belief, beyond pardon, beyond (or past) cure, beyond doubt, beyond dispute, beyond expression, beyond expectation, beyond grasp, beyond help, beyond all measure, beyond praise, beyond price, beyond question, beyond repair, beyond recognition, beyond reach, beyond (above) suspicion, beyond words, in use, in print, out of use, in question, on sale, under consideration, under control, under discussion, under repair, under supervision, etc.

...June had twice been to tea there under the chaperonage of aunt. (Galsworthy)

Outside the river, and out of sight he slackened his pace still more. (Galsworthy)

...She remained under the care of Doctor Thoroughgood until August the fifteenth. (Cronin)

...he ran his beaming eyes over Martin's second-best suit, which was also his worst suit, and which was ragged and past repair. (London)

Unconsciously he absorbed her philosophy. Under her guidance he was learning to cultivate the superficialniceties and let the deeper things go hang. (Cronin)

The passive meaning of the phrase is generally signalled by the context, the lexical meaning of the subject in particular. Compare the following:

children in charge of a nurse > children are taken care of;

a nurse in charge of children > a nurse takes care of children. Functional similarity of structures with nominal phrases and those

with passive forms of the verb is quite obvious.

above criticism too great to be criticised

beyond repair too old to be repaired

without hearing near enough to be heard

beyond all measure too large to be measured

out of use no longer used

under his guidance guided by him the house is under construe- the house is being built tion

Chapter VI. ENGLISH VERB-FORMS AND THEIR PATTERN-VALUE

Time-distinctions find their expression in verb-forms. English grammatical terminology has a special word tense to indicate time at which an action or state is viewed as happening or existing. The speaker's subjective use of distinctions of Time drawn in accordance with the conventions of the language is naturally primary in importance.

The system of the English verb offers its own difficulties for a foreign student to master. The most troublesome problems are concentrated in the area of the finite verb, and include, in particular, tense, aspect, and modal auxiliary usage.

The components of grammatical meanings in actual verb-forms are often not so separable as it might be suggested. Tense, mood and aspect appear to be closely entwined. The terms tense-aspect or, say, tense-mood seem therefore fully justified. We can hardly say that there are pure tenses, pure moods or pure aspects; two or three of these kinds of meaning are always inseparably present in any given verb form. This will be made clear if we identify the tense-forms by specifying their characteristic sentence-functions and look at the contrasting patterns rather than contrasting forms.

A major question in learning the grammar of the English verb is therefore to look for the difference of distribution in various contexts, linguistic or situational, where each verb-form occurs.

Distinction must be made between paradigmatic (primary) and syntagmatical (secondary) meanings of grammatical forms, in other words, between its denotative and connotative meanings.

In the power of connotation of grammatical forms lies the reserve force of language. Grammatical imagery plays such a considerable role in the formal arrangement of units of speech as to deserve our particular attention.

The study of verb-forms must reasonably include their functional transpositions where we distinguish: a) formal conventional transpositions in fixed patterns of grammatical usage and b) expressive transpositions for stylistic purposes. The former are stylistically unmarked and emotionally neutral; the latter are marked and have a stylistic value.

THE PRESENT TENSE

In the practice of perhaps all languages the idea of "now" means a time with appreciable duration the length of which varies greatly with the context. It is important only that the theoretical zero-point should fall within the period alluded to. The verb-form itself does not imply the length of duration before or after the present moment covering a very wide range of meaning as well as expression of intermittent occurrences. The implied context, linguistic or situational, is all that can be considered relevant.

The multiple polysemantic essence of the present tense merits close attention as most directly relevant to the problem of synonymy in grammar.

In these terms, the present tense may be characterised by distinguishing the inclusive and exclusive present. The first will include:

1) the actual present denoting an action occurring at the moment of speaking or writing. I see an aeroplane. The teacher wants to speak to you. I love you.

Here belong also author's words, stage remarks, comments in newspapers, etc., e. g.: Goes behind the screen. Opens the door. Bell rings.

2) the neutral present used when no particular time is thought of; depending on the context it may indicate:

something that is always true, e. g.: The sun rises in the east (generalising present);

actions permanently characterising the subject, e. g.: Fleur does what she likes (qualitative present);

ability to do something, e. g.: She speaks three languages. (She can speak three languages).

The neutral present is also used in giving a definition or stating a rule. This may be called present of definition, e. g.: Water freezes below zero.

As a matter of fact, in such cases an action or state denoted by the present tense can be referred to any sphere of time: present, past or future. Herein lies probably the reason of the fact that the frequency value of this verbal form is considerably higher in scientific English than in ordinary use.

3) the iterative present refers to an action repeated at intervals, the repetition being usually indicated by an adjunct like every day, twice weekly, always, etc., e. g.: I get up at eight every day. This paper appears twice weekly. We always go to the seaside in summer.

In terms of modern linguistics, the present tense is often characterised negatively, i. e. as the form used when there is no positive reason for the use of the past, future, or the subjunctive or any other complex conjugation form. As the unmarked item in the conjugation of the English verb, it is then called the neutral or non-past of the verb ¹. And this angle of view is not devoid of some logical foundations.

The syntagmatic meanings of the "exclusive" present may be illustrated by its use: a) with future time reference, b) with the implication of a past action, c) with imperative modal force.

This may be shown diagrammatically:

The Present Tense

The primary denotative meaning (Inclusive Present)

I see an airplane

I love you.

I. Indicative Modality

c) Generalising Present The sun rises in the east.

d) Iterative Present I always go to the South in summer.

e) Qualitative Present She plays tennis with innate grace.

Secondary syntagmatic meanings (Exclusive Present)

a) past time reference !

And then in the night of the banquet she appears in her emeralds... (Mitchell)

b) future time reference We start tomorrow.

II. Imperative Modality You go and see him.

The present tense recounts of a future action as vividly as if it were present.

Distinction must be made here between different shades of modal meaning and adherent expressivity imparted to the verb-form by different kind of contexts, linguistic or situational:

1) strong determination of the speaker to do something or get something done. This is often the case in familiar speech, in expressive or otherwise emphatic style, e. g.:

"If you mention her", cried Winifred, "I go straight out to Park Lane and I don't come back". (Galsworthy)

"You may try, and try, and try again, Messrs. Dodson and Fogg", said Mr. Pickwick vehemently, "but not one far-thing of costs or damages do you ever get from me, if I spend the rest of my existence in a debtor's prison". (Dickens)

"Edward, said miss Murdstone", "Let there be an end of this. I go tomorrow". (Dickens)

2) strong certainty of future action viewed as a logical result or consequence of another given action, e. g.:

Don't go worrying about what may never happen, or you're lost. (Lindsay)

"Draw a form of settlement that passes all my property to Miss Fleur's children..." Gradman grated: "Rather extremely at your age, sir; you lose control". (Galsworthy)

Gosh! Here's a ring with a big blue diamond. Worth four thousand pounds. We're on the velvet for the rest of our lives. (Shaw)

The use of the present tense with the implication of futurity imparts vivacity to speech and often serves stylistic purposes. And this is not specifically English. There is a close parallel to this development in other European languages.

A. M. Peshkovsky¹ says with truth that in such cases the category of the present tense in Russian does not lose or modify its meaning, but just actualises it in vivid and clear relief, e. g.:

...To я воображаю себя уже на свободе, вне нашего дома. Я поступаю в гусары и иду на войну. Со всех сторон на меня несутся враги, я размахиваюсь саблей и убиваю одного, другой взмах -- убиваю другого, третьего... (Л. Толстой)

"That dog", said Jerry, pointing out the old leader of the troop, and speaking in a terrible voice "lost a halfpenny today. He goes without supper". (Dickens)

She rose to the full extent of her more than medium height, and said: "It has been on my mind a long time dear, and if nobody else will tell you, I have made up my mind that" -- "Aunt Hester interrupted her: "Mind, Julia, you do it -- "she gasped -- "on your own responsibility!" (Galsworthy)

The present tense with future time reference is known to be widely current in certain types of subordination. Distinction must be made between its different uses in object subclauses where it may be used:

a) without any special expressive connotation, e. g.: Suppose they come a few minutes later.

b) with expressive connotation or such modal shades of meaning as: strong determination, certainty or assurance, e. g.:

...But understand that if I decorate, I decorate alone, without interference of any sort. (Galsworthy)

Be sure that I come back with good news, and I am not long gone. (Dickens)

"...And do I keep the change?" asked Stanley, who had been given a shilling. "I should think you don't, my lad!" cried Turgis. (Priestly).

"Well", he said, "I shall have to see Soames ...At all events I'll let you know what happens when I speak to Soames". (Galsworthy)

"Of course, there's legal separation -- we can get that. But separation! Um" -- "What does it mean?" asked Winifred desolately.-- "That he can't touch you or you him; you're both of you married and unmarried." (Galsworthy)

The use of the present tense with the implication of futurity in object subclauses is rather a frequent occurrence after such verbs in the principal clause as: to be, to care, to hope, to look, to mind, to pray, to see, etc.

"Let's hope they stay there," Mullinder said. "They want to finish off that lot once and for all this time." (Sillitoe)

The present tense may be functionally synonymous with the Present Perfect. This is often the case in patterns with verbs of saying, seeing and hearing. The present tense is employed here perfectively to imply "being in a state resulting from having..." Examples are:

Fly over my city, little Swallow, and tell me what you see there. (Wilde)

I hear, you couldn't wait two weeks for me. (Mitchell)

You've been to Switzerland, they tell me. (Galsworthy)

Reference is made here to a past action and the speaker uses the present tense as though the words had just been spoken, since he feels the matter as one of his present interest.

See also the following example:

"...The boy, where is he?"

"He is playing with some friends".

"With some friends? Will he be long?"

"About an hour".

"A fine little boy. I come to speak with you about him". (Gordon) (I come = I have come).

The opposition present-past comes to be neutralised. The context is explicit enough to make the necessary meaning clear. In such cases the present tense is employed "perfectively", to imply "being in a state resulting from having...".

This use belongs chiefly to conversation and letter writing, and is common only in the first person, though, with the verb see the second person seems also to be "perfective" in such patterns as: You see I have done my best to help you.

The expressive element is well seen in stylistic transposition of the present tense with such past time reference as given below:

"Old Taylor told rather a good one at the pub yesterday"', he began. "It was a. wedding in the country. Rather a rough crowd of wedding guests, all waiting for the bride to get changed before they could get stuck into the booze and dancing. Well, one of the guests manages to get into the bride's room and he rapes her. No arguments".

Naturally, everybody is very upset and the best man makes a speech. He tells them that not a drop of booze is to be served until the wrong is righted. Everybody looks longingly at the brandy, but not a drop can they get. Time passes, when suddenly the best man comes running in again. He is beaming all over his face, and he calls for silence. 'It's all right, ladies and gents', he says. 'Honour is satisfied. The bloke apologised". (Gordon)

The change of the tense-forms with one and the same time reference is a most effective stylistic device in expressive language. The present tense recounts the past viewed by the speaker as vividly as if it were present.

I hand the first book to my mother. Perhaps it is a grammar, perhaps a history or geography. I take a last drowning look at the page as I give it into her hand, and start off aloud at a racing pace while I have got it fresh. I trip over a word. Mr. Murdstone looks up. I trip over another word. Miss Murdstone looks up. (Dickens)

THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE) TENSE

The progressive forms are commonly defined as denoting concrete processes of the action whose progression is taking place at a definite moment of time expressed or implied in the context or speech situation, і. e. processes limited in time as contrasted to those of general validity. The most important function of the progressive aspect is to refer to temporary activities situations or goings-on.

The progressive forms are normal where predication tells of actions, events, or states of affairs that are in process at the moment of speech or writing and are thought as begun, but not ended, with beginnings and/or ends felt as relatively close to the time of writing or speaking.

The denotative value of the Present Progressive may accordingly be characterised as indicating: a) present time relevance, b) something progressive, c) contact with the moment of speech. These three semantic elements (semes) make up its synchronic componental polysemy.

She looked at him scornfully and answered: "I don't know what you are talking about!" (Galsworthy). "Sorry!" said Desert, abruptly: "I'm boring you. Have a sweet?' (Galsworthy). "You are talking like a child". (Galsworthy)

Grammar books make reference to the fact that the continuous tenses cannot normally be used with verbs that do not denote duration in a limited time, such as: believe, belong, desire, detest, feel, forget, hear, hope, like, love, recollect, remember, imagine, refuse, see, smell, think, wish, want, know, etc.

But in present-day English, especially in spoken English, these verbs are found more and more frequently in continuous forms either because the verb is taken in a slightly different meaning or because of their particular application to this very moment and special emphasis of duration, e. g.: "Are you feeling strong, darling? Aunt Em is here, and my uncle Hilary and his wife". (Galsworthy) "He'll never give me a sign of what he's thinking or going to do. Like was!" (Galsworthy) Then it's little enough you are knowing of any man living, let alone Ashley. (Mitchell)

It will be relevant to observe that the grammatical content of the progressive forms varies its effect according to the type of meaning conveyed by the verb.

Most difficulties over the use of the progressive forms arise, in fact, with the classes of verbs which are normally incompatible with the progressive.

Peter is being most inattentive.

I'm thinking about what you said.

I'm listening to you.

Peter is being inattentive implies a rather permanent quality. I'm thinking about what you said differs from I think so, as there is an element of deliberateness about the thinking where the continuous forms are used: thought is viewed here as a kind of work, with fairly well defined beginning and end, not merely quick darting of opinion rising instantaneously.

I'm listening to you differs from I hear you: listening is conscious and deliberate, but hearing, in this sense, is a reflex.

Verbs of physical and mental perceptions and verbs of saying are comparatively seldom used in progressive forms. When this is the case, the verb-form marks intensity of an action in process with emphasis laid on it, e. g.:

Her eyes were not quite close but surely were not seeing. (Galsworthy)

He glanced at Fleur. There she sat, arid what she was feeling he couldn't tell. (Galsworthy)

She gazed and gazed, wondering, delighting, longing, and all the while the siren voice of the unrestful was whispering in her ear. (Dreiser)

Compare also the following:

1. a) You imagine he'll come. You think he'll come.

b) You are imagining things. You are having hallucinations.

2. a) I plan to leave tomorrow. I intend to leave tomorrow.

b) I am planning my holidays. I am making arrangements for the holidays.

It would be wrong to say that certain verbs are never used in Continuous forms, rather, some kinds of predication expressed by certain verb-phrases resist expansion of their forms.

Thus, for instance, in Now I'm remembering the Present Continuous may be referred to as used to emphasise the limited duration, but this is arbitrary, for we may say that in this case remember has the meaning of "make a conscious effort to remember", in which sense the Continuous form is fairly common.

Further examples are: They're living in London and They live in London. The Continuous form suggests either that they have moved there recently or that they intend to move soon, or both. The simple Present indicates that London is their permanent home.

With verbs such as read or work, which refer to non-momentary activity, the Present Continuous will usually suggest duration of the activity, itself, especially if a point of time is indicated, e. g.:

Don't call on me, I'm working at twelve.

In contrast, the activity has no duration in: I'm leaving at twelve. If this differs at all from I leave at twelve, it is in terms of intention as compared to a fixed plan or decision.

Note. The fact that the Continuous forms may be used to suggest a general intention can also be illustrated by the use of the Past and Present Perfect Continuous in patterns like the following: I've been coming to see you for a long time. The intention has lasted over a long time and, as the Perfect Tense shows, began in the past and extended right up to the present moment. I'm very glad to see you. It was nice of Jon to think of bringing you down to us. "We weren't coming to the house", Jon blurted out, "I just wanted Fleur to see where I lived!" (Galsworthy) (we weren't coming > we did not intend to come).

It is interesting to compare also the following:

I long for you every moment > I am longing for you every moment.