Analyze development of psychology

Analyze modern psychological science. Experiment and observation in psychology. Description neuroscience and behaviour. Parent and child relationship. Analyze of human motives. Basic types of temperament. Classification of character accentuations.

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1. Analyze development of psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of human mind and behaviour: how we think, feel, act and interact individually and in groups.

Psychology is concerned with all aspects of behaviour and with the thoughts, feelings and motivations underlying that behaviour. It is both a thriving academic discipline and a vital professional practice.

Psychology has come a long way of development, there was a change of understanding of the object, the object and purpose of psychology. Here are the main stages of its development.

Stage I - Psychology as a science of the soul. Such a definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. The presence of the soul trying to explain all the strange phenomenon in human life.

Stage II - Psychology as a science of consciousness. There in the XVII century with the development of the natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, wish to call consciousness. The main method of studying the thought of watching a man himself and a description of the facts.

Stage III - Psychology as the science of behavior. There in the XX century. The task of psychology - to experiment and observe that it is possible to see directly, namely the behavior, actions, reactions of the person (the motives that cause actions, not taken into account).

Stage IV - psychology as a science that studies the objective laws, mechanisms and manifestations of the psyche.

Psychology is both one of the oldest and one of the youngest sciences. Already in the V century BC. e. Greek thinkers were interested in many of the issues on which today works as a psychologist - memory, learning, motivation, perception, dreams, pathological behavior. But although the forerunner of psychology was the science of antiquity, it is believed that the modern approach began to take shape in 1879.

2. Explain structure of Psychology

Modern psychological science consists of a series of relatively independent scientific disciplines or branches, which form its structure. We list a few of them. The central place it occupies in the general psychology. General psychology is the foundation of all the psychological knowledge, it studies the general laws of organization and functioning of the mind, develops methodology and theory of psychology. Comparative psychology studies the laws of the psyche in the phylogeny. Age psychology studies the laws of human mental development in ontogenesis, the main stages of its development, critical and sensitive periods. In psychology stand out: the psychology of childhood, adolescence psychology, psychology of adolescence, adulthood psychology, psychology of aging and old age. Differential Psychology explores the individual psychological differences between people. It may be differences in temperament, character, abilities, cognitive styles, behavior and motivate others. Engineering psychology is developing guidelines for harmonization of technical devices (cars, appliances and so on. N. ) The characteristics of the mental processes, functions and properties of a person seeking to ensure maximum reliability and efficiency of monitoring and control systems and reduce the cost of human labor. Work Psychology examines the psychological foundations and structure of work, its dynamics and mechanisms of regulation. This discipline examines the psychological factors of the efficiency and quality of work. Social psychology studies the psychological mechanisms of influence of society (community) on the behavior and human consciousness, explores the interaction of people in the groups, collectives and position of the person in them, issues of leadership and subordination. The important issues of social psychology is the study of the psychological mechanisms of formation of public opinion, the problem of mass communications. Legal psychology - a branch of psychology that studies the relationship between human rights and law. Its main problem - the study of offender, the formation of motivation of the crime, the psychological basis of re-offenders. Clinical Psychology - specialized generalist, has interdisciplinary character and take part in solving the complex problems in health care, education and social assistance.

3. Describe methods in Psychology

To solve the problems of psychology, the following methods:

The method of the experiment - the main method of psychology; characterized in that the researcher creates a special circumstance, stimulating expression of a certain psychic phenomena.

Laboratory experiment is characterized by the use of special laboratory equipment, which makes it possible to accurately record the number and quality of external influences and resulting mental reactions.

In a natural experiment saved for the person's usual conditions of its activities, but it is specially organized in accordance with the purpose of the experiment. The test is usually unaware of the experiment and therefore do not experience voltage characteristic under laboratory conditions.

Methods of observations suggest an explanation of mental phenomena in the course of specially organized his perception. The method of observation are adjacent: the method of product research activity that allows you to determine a person's ability, level of knowledge and skills; method of questioning, and in particular the methods of clinical interview.

Test Method - a method of diagnosing mental capacity of an individual.

Psychological test - a brief, standardized, as a rule, time-limited test of reference for the establishment of specific individual characteristics of the subject.

Biographical method of research is to identify the key factors in the formation of the individual, of his life, the crisis periods of development, especially in socialization.

Psychological modeling. It is expressed in the sign of imitation psychic phenomena or the organization of various human activities in an artificially constructed environment.

Comparative genetic method - a method of studying mental laws by comparing the individual phases of the mental development of individuals.

4. Compare: experiment and observation in Psychology

The method of observation - a method of study, consisting of intentional and purposeful perception of the real world. It requires activation of all psycho. Processes of personality, special attention and thinking. The object of observation can be: individual behavior in a variety of its external manifestations that implement the conscious and unconscious ext. mental states, feelings and aspirations.

Experiment feature is that the researcher himself creates the necessary conditions, as needed, and naturally there is the phenomenon under investigation. Creating conditions, the researcher is able to clearly identify the factors that act at the moment of psychological phenomena, it changes in the course of research that can reveal the reasons which led it.

A laboratory experiment conducted in special laboratories using appropriate instrumentation.

The natural field experiment carried out in normal circumstances so that the subjects did not suspect that they are studying.

Наблюдение

Эксперимент

Depending on the nature of questions

The question remains open. The observer does not know the answer or have a vague idea about it

The question becomes a hypothesis, ie It presupposes the existence of any relationship between the facts. The experiment aims to test the hypothesis

Depending on the control situation

Situations observations determined less strictly than in the experiment

The situation of the experiment clearly defined

Depending on the accuracy of registration action test

Less stringent than in the experiment

The exact procedure for registering the subject of action

5. Explain why Psychological Knowledge is important

The role of psychology in the life of every human being relevant at all times. Community - this is one of the most important tools that only a man can have. It should take care of their people skills. Quite a lot of trivial examples that characterize the lack of education of the person.

Educated person is evaluated not only in appearance but also in terms of eloquence.

Psychology plays an important role in everyone's life. Without mental attitude is impossible to achieve any goal. Theoretical and practical approaches of psychology help ensure and achieve incredible results in your life.

Before you start an exercise conceived plan, make sure that the end justifies the means. It is necessary to know their talented and weaknesses, and only then to use psychology to the task.

And with regards to working with people, it implies a deep psychological knowledge. Taking into account the individuality of each person, it is necessary to pick up the keys to the confidential communication very carefully. The ability to get along with people and to negotiate - a talent that should be acquired as a result of hard work on himself and on his skills.

Success means go all the way to the end. Diligence - is a character trait that distinguishes man among the crowd, and the knowledge of psychology will create a solid foundation for effective communication with people. One of the problems of communication - it is internal barriers, which can be broken.

And if you can not work with people who may want to work with technology or nature.

6. Analyze: Psychology as a science of soul

Psychology as a science has developed over many centuries. First psychological knowledge developed in the depths, as a philosophy, natural sciences and other sciences. This period in the development of psychology covers about 2. 5 thousand. Years and continues to VI. BC. until the middle of the XIX century. Later psychology began to develop as an independent science. .

There are three definitions of the subject of psychology: the science of the soul, of consciousness, of the behavior. The soul - the subject, it would seem, is so uncertain that hardly can be a scientific category. However, psychology is a concept of fundamental importance, not least because that the name of science "psychology" is literally translated as "the doctrine of the soul. ". His name and the first definition of psychology is obliged to Greek mythology.

The Greek myth of Psyche and Eros and was a classic example of true love, the highest realization of the human soul. Therefore Psyche - death, gained its immortality - has become a symbol of the soul who seeks his ideal.

As for the word "psychology", formed from the Greek word "psyche" (soul) and "logos" (teaching science), it appeared for the first time only in the XVIII century the German philosopher Christian Wolff.

Primitive same ideas about the psyche emerged in primitive religions "and beliefs of people in mythology, in the artistic folk art. The soul was seen as something ethereal, mysterious and unknown. The soul determines the life and activity of the animal and the human, and the death of a dream, or are explained according to its permanent or temporary absence. In the primitive world reigned mythological understanding of life where the body populated souls, but human life is ruled by the gods, who are endowed with certain style of behavior: cunning, wisdom, revenge and envy. With the transition to a higher stage of development of society has come to understand themselves as part of the world, created by the gods.

Antiquity marked a new stage in the history of mankind: Steps have been taken to understand and describe the human psyche.

7. Explain Research Methods in Psychology

Lab experiment. This type of experiment is conducted in a well-controlled environment - not necessarily a laboratory - and therefore accurate and objective measurements are possible. Field Experiment. These are conducted in the everyday (i. e. natural) environment of the participants but the situations are still artificially set up. Case Study are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community.

Correlation means association - more precisely it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related. If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other then this is known as a positive correlation. If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other then this is known as a negative correlation. A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables. Interviews. Unstructured (informal) interviews are like a casual conversation. There are no set questions and the participant is given the opportunity to raise whatever topics he/she feels are relevant and ask them in their own way. Structured (formal) interviews are like a job interview. There is a fixed, predetermined set of questions that are put to every participant in the same order and in the same way.

Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone or post. The questions asked can be open ended, allowing flexibility in the respondent's answers, or they can be more tightly structured requiring short answers or a choice of answers from given alternatives.

Observations. Covert observations are when the researcher pretends to be an ordinary member of the group and observes in secret.

Overt observations are when the researcher tells the group he or she is conducting research (i. e. they know they are being observed).

Natural: Here spontaneous behavior is recorded in a natural setting.

Controlled: behavior is observed under controlled laboratory conditions

Participant: Here the observer has direct contact with the group of people they are observing.

Non-participant. The researcher does not have direct contact with the people being observed. Content Analysis is a research tool used to indirectly observe the presence of certain words, images or concepts within the media (e. g. advertisements)

8. Describe Classification of Research Methods in Psychology (7 vopros)

Lab experiment. This type of experiment is conducted in a well-controlled environment - not necessarily a laboratory - and therefore accurate and objective measurements are possible. Field Experiment. These are conducted in the everyday (i. e. natural) environment of the participants but the situations are still artificially set up. Case Study are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Correlation means association - more precisely it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related. If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other then this is known as a positive correlation. If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other then this is known as a negative correlation. A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables. Interviews. Unstructured (informal) interviews are like a casual conversation. There are no set questions and the participant is given the opportunity to raise whatever topics he/she feels are relevant and ask them in their own way. Structured (formal) interviews are like a job interview. There is a fixed, predetermined set of questions that are put to every participant in the same order and in the same way. Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone or post. The questions asked can be open ended, allowing flexibility in the respondent's answers, or they can be more tightly structured requiring short answers or a choice of answers from given alternatives. Observations. Covert observations are when the researcher pretends to be an ordinary member of the group and observes in secret. Overt observations are when the researcher tells the group he or she is conducting research (i. e. they know they are being observed).

Natural: Here spontaneous behavior is recorded in a natural setting.

Controlled: behavior is observed under controlled laboratory conditions

Participant: Here the observer has direct contact with the group of people they are observing.

Non-participant. The researcher does not have direct contact with the people being observed. Content Analysis is a research tool used to indirectly observe the presence of certain words, images or concepts within the media (e. g. advertisements)

9. Describe Neuroscience and Behaviour

Neuroscience is a relatively young, exciting, and fundamentally interdisciplinary field devoted to the study of the nervous systems. Problems range from investigation of the evolution of nervous system in basal vertebrates to the application of neuroscience to education and law. Neuroscientists also seek to develop neurologically plausible models of human thinking, affect and behavior.

Neuroscience creates a context for scholarly conversation about the nature of mind, brain, and behavior. It engages experts in collaboration across diverse fields, including biological sciences, chemistry, computer science, engineering, linguistics, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, physics and psychology. Reflecting the interdisciplinary nature of the major, the curriculum includes flexibility such that it can be customized to best prepare students for a variety of future careers.

Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems, or artificial entities in conjunction with themselves or their environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the (inanimate) physical environment.

Behavioral science is the systematic analysis and investigation of human and animal behaviour through controlled and naturalistic observation, and disciplined scientific experimentation. It attempts to accomplish legitimate, objective conclusions through rigorous formulations and observation. [1] Examples of behavioural sciences include psychology, psychobiology, criminology and cognitive science.

Research Mission

The research mission of the Neuroscience & Behaviour Theme is to explore the relationship between brain function and behaviour. Genetic and molecular signalling within neurons and glia build functional networks and regulate the neuronal activity which underlie behaviour and psychology. Adaption during development and ageing provide further insights into the physiological and psychological limitations of performance, informing studies of brain injury and neurodegeneration and novel approaches to therapy

10. Describe parent and child relationship

Definition. The parent-child relationship consists of a combination of behaviors, feelings, and expectations that are unique to a particular parent and a particular child. The relationship involves the full extent of a child's development.

The quality of the parent-child relationship is affected by the parent's age, experience, and self-confidence; the stability of the parents' marriage; and the unique characteristics of the child compared with those of the parent.

Characteristics of the parent

Characteristics of the parent. Parental self-confidence is an important indicator of parental competence. Mothers who believe that they are effective parents are more competent than mothers who feel incompetent. Also, mothers who see themselves as effective also tend to believe their infants as less difficult to handle. Parental age and previous experience are also important. Older mothers tend to be more responsive to their infants than younger mothers. In addition, parents who have had previous experience with children, whether through younger siblings, career paths, or previous children, are often times better able to cope with parenthood.

Characteristics of the child. Characteristics that may affect the parent-child relationship in a family include the child's physical appearance, sex, and temperament. At birth, the infant's physical appearance may not meet the parent's expectations, or the infant may resemble a disliked relative. As a result, the parent may subconsciously reject the child. If the parents wanted a baby of a particular sex, they may be disappointed if the baby is the opposite sex. If parents do not have the opportunity to talk about this disappointment, they may reject the infant.

Children who are loved thrive better than those who are not. Either parent or a nonparent caregiver may serve as the primary caregiver or form the primary parent-child love relationship. Loss of love from a primary caregiver can occur with the death of a parent or interruption of parental contact through prolonged hospitalizations. Divorce can interfere with the child's need to eat, improve, and advance. Cultural norms within the family also affect a child's likelihood to achieve particular developmental milestones.

11. Explain main directions in Psychology

The main directions of development of psychology in the XX century. :

Behaviorism [8] The founders of behaviorism - Thorndike (1874-1949) and George. Watts (1878-1958). In this direction it reduces psychological study of the subject, especially for the analysis of behavior, which is widely interpreted as all kinds of reactions to environmental stimuli. At the same time excluded from the subject of study itself is the mind, consciousness.

Psychoanalysis, or Freudianism - Freudianism is typical for an explanation of mental phenomena through the unconscious. Its core is the idea of the eternal conflict between the conscious and the unconscious in the human psyche. According to Freud, human actions are controlled by the deep motives elude consciousness.

Geshtaltpsihologiya [9] -Predmetom began studying laws of formation, structuring and transformation of the mental image. The first experimental studies have been devoted to the analysis of Gestalt perception and allowed to further identify a number of phenomena in this area. The main representatives of this trend - M. Wertheimer, W. Keller, K. Koffka.

Humanistic psychology - the direction of foreign psychology, recently rapidly developing in Russia. The main subject of humanistic psychology is the personality as a unique integrated system, which is not something predetermined, and "open the possibility of" self-actualization inherent to man. Within the framework of humanistic psychology occupies a prominent place personality theory developed by American psychologist Abraham Maslow.

Genetic Psychology. The object of study - the origin and development of intelligence in the child, the main task - to study the mechanisms of cognitive activity of the child. Intelligence investigated as a measure of individual development, and as a subject of action on the basis of which there is intellectual activity.

12. Describe experiment in Psychology

Psychological experiments - conducted in special circumstances experience to produce new scientific knowledge about psychology through targeted intervention researcher in the livelihoods of the test.

In psychology, experimental research has its own characteristics, which allows to consider it separately from research in other sciences. Specifics of the psychological experiment is that:

As a construct of the psyche can not be objectively observed and its activities can be found only on the basis of its manifestations, for example, in the form of a certain behavior.

In the study of mental processes it is considered impossible to identify any one of them, and the effect always occurs on the psyche as a whole (or, from the modern point of view, the body as a single indivisible system).

In experiments with human beings (as well as some of the higher animals, such as primates) there is an active interaction between the experimenter and the subject.

This cooperation, including making necessary the presence of the subject instruction (which obviously is not typical of natural science experiments).

We can distinguish the following main advantages possessed by experimental method in psychological research [8]:

· The ability to choose the time of start of the event

· Repeatability studied events

· The variability of the results by the conscious manipulation of independent variables

· Provides high accuracy results

· Repeat testing under similar conditions

Supporters of the unacceptability of the experimental method in psychology based on the following provisions:

· Subject-subject relations research violates rules

· Mind has the property of spontaneity

· Mind too unstable

· Mind too is unique

· Psyche - too complicated object of study

13. Describe observation method in Psychology. What is a weakness of observation method in Psychology

Observations. an obvious method of carrying out research in psychology.

Advantages of Observational Methods:

The results obtained through any other scientific methods need to be in conformity with the outcomes of skilled observation. In case of any departure, the processes adopted in the 'other' methods have to be carefully scrutinized and evaluated.

The experimental and other laboratory-based methods study behaviors under artificially controlled conditions. But through observational method, the investigator gets a real picture of the behaviors and the events as they manifest in natural settings. Systematic and unbiased observation can yield a true picture of individual's natural set of behaviors.

Certain phenomena can be accessed and properly understood only through observation. Crowd behavior, social behaviors of the animals, and mother-child interaction at home are some exemplary situations, which can be meaningfully assessed, and understood only through observation.

Disadvantages of Observational Method:

The investigator has little control over the situation he is interested to observe. In the natural setting, too many extraneous factors influence the phenomenon. As a result, it is difficult to assess what causes or determines the behaviors of researcher's interest.

In many cases the observer has to wait until the appropriate event takes place, so some types of observations are time-consuming, and labor-intensive.

Observer-bias is one of the important problems in observational research. The observer observational report may in part reflect his biases in describing and interpreting the event. Thus, the description may not reflect the true features of an event.

The observer himself, during the course of observation, may be affected by the process itself. His initial neutral disposition may be affected and distorted.

14. What is a weakness of experiment in Psychology

The experiment - one of the most respected methods of scientific research, but it has its pluses and minuses. It is reliable, but is cumbersome, it makes an impression, but not necessarily ethical.

Minuses

· Subject-subject relations research violates rules

· Mind has the property of spontaneity

· Mind too unstable

· Mind too is unique

· Psyche - too complicated object of study

It is very difficult to arrange the experiment so that the subject did not know that he is the subject. If this fails, then more than likely stiffness test, conscious or unconscious anxiety, fear of evaluation and so on. To ensure the secrecy of the process of natural experiment, it can not be carried out repeatedly, and restricts the use of the equipment, which is also a negative side of this method.

The main advantages:

The ability to choose the time of start of the event

Repeatability studied events

The variability of the results by the conscious manipulation of independent variables

15. Analyze verbal communication

Verbal communication - cooperation built on lexical selected units (words): oral (verbal) and writing (text).

Using as a sign system of human speech, verbal communication can be directed at the individual, group, or not have a particular destination, but in any case it has an interactive character. it is called verbal communication, speech understanding (ability to speak) as a system of phonetic symbols. It is a means of emotional impact that stimulates or inhibits the action of one or both partners, because without the effect of approval or disapproval is impossible to coordinate joint communicative action.

In the process of information transmission implemented speech function: the origin and perception of messages, the regulation of communicative action interlocutors control over the results of communication, and others.

One of the most important components of verbal communication speaking, that is, the ability to speak, to say the information to design proposals. Feature speaking also contains the individual characteristics of a person (manner of speaking), which delivers information.

Speaking - psychological component of verbal communication; method embodiments of the system marks a sense, encoding information; mechanism of speech, constructing sentences. The culture of speaking explores a special science - Rhetoric (the theory of eloquence). Possession means of rhetoric means the ability to speak clearly, clearly, concisely, correctly, figuratively and polite. He is dependent on usage of vocabulary, knowledge of grammar, wealth of association, expression, attitude to the communication partner. The effectiveness of verbal communication depends on the ability to listen, which is a prerequisite for proper understanding of the interlocutor.

Listening - psychological component of verbal communication, decoding method, and the perception of information.

16. Analyze Gender stereotypes

Definition: Gender Stereotypes are fixed ideas about men's and women's traits and capabilities and how people should behave, based on their gender.

Males: controlling and manipulating the environment; independent, assertive, dominant, competitive.

Females: relatively passive, , loving, sensitive, and supportive in social relationships, especially in their family roles as wife and mother. Warmth in personal relationships, the display of anxiety under pressure, and the suppression of overt aggression and sexuality as more appropriate for women than men.

These stereotypes are true cross-culturally as well. This implies that the origins of these stereotypes does not lie in local cultures. But there are some variations. For example, African-American families encourage girls to be aggressive and assertive. On the other hand, the sex stereotypes that men are more aggressive than women and women more interpersonally sensitive than men are very robust, even among more educated people, both sexes, all social classes. (Probably because they are true!)

Age differences: Young children are especially rigid in gender stereotyping; children between ages 3-6 are more gender stereotypes than adults. This reflects a general tendency for young children to have rigid, absolutist sense of rules. (This is also the case in moral reasoning where young children allow no exceptions to rules like "stealing is bad. ")

Education differences: In the US, females and college-educated women age 18-35 are more likely than older or less educated women to perceive female role as more assertive, independent, and achievement-striving.

Sex differences: Men are more likely to have traditional gender stereotypes than women, especially if they are the sole wage earner in the family. Fathers are more concerned that their children maintain behaviors appropriate to their gender; fathers play a more important role than mothers in children's gender stereotyping.

17. Analyze of human needs

Maslow proposed that human beings are driven by different factors at different times. These driving forces are hierarchical, in the sense that we generally start at the bottom layer and work our way up. It represents the idea that human beings are propelled into action by different motivating factors at different times - biological drives, psychological needs, higher goals. It simply means that higher needs don't appear unless and until unsatisfied lower needs are satisfied.

ST = Self-Transcendence

The first level, at the bottom of the pyramid, consists of our short-term basic needs, also known as physiological needs: food, water, warmth, sex.

The second level consists of longer-term safety needs: security, order, stability.

The third level represents the social need for affiliation, also known as “love and belonging”. We want to be accepted by others around us. We want to have stable relationships.

The fourth level represents the need for esteem. Within our social groups we want to be recognized and admired as individuals who accomplish things. We want prestige and power.

Almost at the top of the pyramid, self-actualizationis the desire to experience ever deeper fulfilment by realising (actualising) more and more of our human potential.

At the very top of the pyramid is the desire for self-transcendence -- to experience, unite with and serve that which is beyond the individual self: the unity of all being.

18. Analyze of human motives

The basis of Maslow's motivation theory is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower factors need to be satisfied before higher needs can be satisfied.

Self-actualization is the summit of Maslow's motivation theory. It is about the quest of reaching one's full potential as a person. Unlike lower level needs, this need is never fully satisfied; as one grows psychologically there are always new opportunities to continue to grow.

Self-actualized people tend to have motivators such as:

· Truth

· Justice

· Wisdom

· Meaning

Esteem Needs

After a person feels that they "belong", the urge to attain a degree of importance emerges. Esteem needs can be categorized as external motivators and internal motivators.

Some examples of esteem needs are:

· Recognition (external motivator)

· Attention (external motivator)

· Social Status (external motivator)

· Accomplishment (internal motivator)

· Self-respect (internal motivator)

Social Needs

Once a person has met the lower level physiological and safety needs, higher level motivators awaken. The first level of higher level needs are social needs. Social needs are those related to interaction with others and may include:

· Friendship

· Belonging to a group

· Giving and receiving love

Safety Needs

Once physiological needs are met, one's attention turns to safety and security in order to be free from the threat of physical and emotional harm. Such needs might be fulfilled by:

· Living in a safe area

· Medical insurance

· Job security

· Financial reserves

Physiological Needs

Physiological needs are those required to sustain life, such as:

· Air

· Water

· Food

· Sleep

19. Compare basic 4 types of temperament

Sanguine. The sanguine temperament is fundamentally impulsive and pleasure-seeking; sanguine people are sociable and charismatic. They are usually quite creative and often daydream. However, some alone time is crucial for those of this temperament. Sanguine can also mean sensitive, compassionate and thoughtful. Sanguine personalities generally struggle with following tasks all the way through, are chronically late, and tend to be forgetful and sometimes a little sarcastic. Often, when they pursue a new hobby, they lose interest as soon as it ceases to be engaging or fun. They are very much people persons. They are talkative and not shy. Sanguines generally have an almost shameless nature, certain that what they are doing is right. They have no lack of confidence. Choleric. The choleric temperament is fundamentally ambitious and leader-like. They have a lot of aggression, energy, and/or passion, and try to instill it in others. They can dominate people of other temperaments, especially phlegmatic types. Many great charismatic military and political figures were choleric. They like to be in charge of everything. However, cholerics also tend to be either highly disorganized or highly organized. They do not have in-between setups, only one extreme to another. As well as being leader-like and assertive, cholerics also fall into deep and sudden depression. Essentially, they are very much prone to mood swings. Melancholic. The melancholic temperament is fundamentally introverted and thoughtful. Melancholic people often were perceived as very (or overly) pondering and considerate, getting rather worried when they could not be on time for events. Melancholics can be highly creative in activities such as poetry and art - and can become preoccupied with the tragedy and cruelty in the world. Often they are perfectionists. They are self-reliant and independent; one negative part of being a melancholic is that they can get so involved in what they are doing they forget to think of others. Phlegmatic. The phlegmatic temperament is fundamentally relaxed and quiet, ranging from warmly attentive to lazily sluggish. Phlegmatics tend to be content with themselves and are kind. They are accepting and affectionate. They may be receptive and shy and often prefer stability to uncertainty and change. They are consistent, relaxed, calm, rational, curious, and observant, qualities that make them good administrators. They can also be passive-aggressive.

20. Analyze Hippocrates classification of temperament

A fundamental classification of temperament is considered to be the work of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. He explained the predominance of temperament in the body of one of the "vital juices":

- Yellow bile (al-Greek. Hall - bile poison) - makes one impulsive, quick-tempered - choleric (fire)

- Blood (Sangua - blood) - makes moving and fun - Sanguine (air)

- Black bile (melena lobby - black bile) - makes careful, thoughtful and sad - melancholic (land)

- Lymph (phlegm - mucus) - makes the calm and slow - phlegmatic (water) Sanguine. The sanguine temperament is fundamentally impulsive and pleasure-seeking; sanguine people are sociable and charismatic. They tend to enjoy social gatherings, making new friends and tend to be boisterous. They are usually quite creative and often daydream. However, some alone time is crucial for those of this temperament. They are talkative and not shy. Sanguines generally have an almost shameless nature, certain that what they are doing is right. They have no lack of confidence.

Choleric. The choleric temperament is fundamentally ambitious and leader-like. They have a lot of aggression, energy, and/or passion, and try to instill it in others. They can dominate people of other temperaments, especially phlegmatic types. Many great charismatic military and political figures were choleric. They like to be in charge of everything. However, cholerics also tend to be either highly disorganized or highly organized. cholerics also fall into deep and sudden depression.

Melancholic. The melancholic temperament is fundamentally introverted and thoughtful. Melancholic people often were perceived as very (or overly) pondering and considerate, getting rather worried when they could not be on time for events. Melancholics can be highly creative in activities such as poetry and art - and can become preoccupied with the tragedy and cruelty in the world

Phlegmatic. The phlegmatic temperament is fundamentally relaxed and quiet, ranging from warmly attentive to lazily sluggish. Phlegmatics tend to be content with themselves and are kind. They are accepting and affectionate. They may be receptive and shy and often prefer stability to uncertainty and change. They can also be passive-aggressive.

21. Give an example of research Method of Temperament

Many researchers, particularly those engaged in the study of temperament children spend for the diagnosis of temperament natural experiment that is, having the basic features of the experimental method, while very close to the method of observation. This method makes it possible to detailed control and running conditions of the experiment, as well as their management; At the same time it allows us to measure the behavior of interest in natural conditions close to the child's daily life. The child does not know that he It is subject to monitoring his reactions and behaviors detail recorded and sent in advance of the planned experimental situation. Examples of a natural experiment to study the temperament of children may serve a variety of outdoor games, organized by the researcher. Clear, that they can meet the conditions of this experiment only if if the game itself, its rules will be imposed by the experimenter, strictly monitored and recorded them.

22. Explain types of Character

The four kinds of character that emerge are as follows:

1. The Continent Character is one who has selfish, amoral, or immoral desires, but exhibits control over them in the service of acting morally. For example, a man in a committed relationship who lusts after another woman but inhibits acting on those feelings because the betrayal of his wife goes against the good would be acting as a continent character. Interestingly, Kant believed that the moral and the personal inclinations were inevitably in conflict and the times when an individual suppressed his desires and acted morally were examples of the highest good.

2. The Incontinent Character knows what the right or virtuous thing is to do, but does not have the self-control to live by his morals. Continuing with the example above, this would be an individual who would know that it was wrong to betray his wife and have a casual affair, but would give into his desires, perhaps feeling guilty afterwards.

3. The Vicious Character, in contrast, feels no conflict between inclinations and moral duty because he has no moral sense of the good. Such individuals simply act on their own selfish inclinations, as these are seen as what is valuable. Continuing with the above example, a vicious character would cheat on his wife with no guilt and simply work to solve the problem of her finding out about it so that it would not inconvenience him.

4. The Virtuous Character also feels no conflict between emotional inclinations and moral duty. Why? Because the virtuous character has trained his emotional system to be aligned with his moral inclinations. In short, at a deep emotional level, the virtuous character wants to do the good. While such a character might indeed have sexual feelings for another, he would feel pride and connection in acting in a loyal, trustworthy manner and the very thought of cheating or acting immorally is deeply aversive for the virtuous character. In contrast to Kant, Aristotle believed that the virtuous character represented the highest ideal.

It is important to note here that individuals will certainly not always be one or another character. I

23. Classification of character accentuations according to K. Leongard: give an example of famous people

psychology temperament character relationship

K. Leongard based on a relation between people when he made a classification of character accentuations. This typology has been allocated ten pure types and number of intermediate. In its origin marked types have different localization.

By temperament like natural formations, Leonhard was assigned types such as:

· hyperthymic (desire activity, the pursuit of experiences, optimism, focus on good luck);

· dysthymic (retardation, emphasizing the ethical side, experiences and fears focus on failure);

· affectively labile (mutual compensation features focus on different standards);

· alarming (timidity, shyness, submissiveness);

· affective and exalted (inspiring, lofty sentiments, the erection of emotion in the cult);

· emotive (kindness, timidity, compassion).

By the nature of how socially conditioned education, were assigned types such as:

· demonstrative (arrogance, vanity, boastfulness, lies, flattery, I focus on its own as a reference);

· pedantic (indecision, conscientiousness, hypochondria, fear of non-compliance to the ideals I);

· getting stuck (suspicion, resentment, vanity, the transition from recovery to despair); - Analogue Iksotima, viscous nature of Kretschmer.

· excitability (short temper, ponderous, pedantic, focus on the instincts).

Finally, to the personal level it was classified types:

· extroverted;

· introverted

24. Analyze types of interpersonal communication

Interpersonal communication is the process by which people exchange information, feelings, and meaning through verbal and non-verbal messages: it is face-to-face communication.

Uses of Interpersonal Communication

Most of us engage in some form of interpersonal communication on a regular basis, how well we communicate with others is a measure of our interpersonal skills. Interpersonal communication is a key life skill and can be used to: Give and collect information. , Influence the attitudes and behaviour of others. , Form contacts and maintain relationships. , Make sense of the world and our experiences in it. , Express personal needs and understand the needs of others. , Give and receive emotional support. , Make decisions and solve problems. , Anticipate and predict behaviour. , Regulate power.

Effective verbal or spoken communication is dependant on a number of factors and cannot be fully isolated from other important interpersonal skills such as non-verbal communication, listening skills and clarification. Clarity of speech, remaining calm and focused, being polite and following some basic rules of etiquette will all aid the process of verbal communication. Interpersonal communication is much more than the explicit meaning of words, the information or message conveyed. It also includes implicit messages, whether intentional or not, which are expressed through non-verbal behaviours.

Non-verbal communications include facial expressions, the tone and pitch of the voice, gestures displayed through body language (kinesics) and the physical distance between the communicators (proxemics).

These non-verbal signals can give clues and additional information and meaning over and above spoken (verbal) communication.

Non-verbal Messages Allow People To: Reinforce or modify what is said in words. For example, people may nod their heads vigorously when saying "Yes" to emphasise that they agree with the other person, but a shrug of the shoulders and a sad expression when saying "I'm fine thanks,” may imply that things are not really fine at all!

Convey information about their emotional state. , Define or reinforce the relationship between people. , Provide feedback to the other person.

· Regulate the flow of communication, for example by signalling to others that they have finished speaking or wish to say something

25. Describe the role of emotions in communication process

Emotions in the communication play a large role in how an entire organization communicates within itself and to the outside world. “Events at work have real emotional impact on participants. The consequences of emotional states in the workplace, both behavioral and attitudinal, have substantial significance for individuals, groups, and society”. “Positive emotions in the workplace help employees obtain favorable outcomes including achievement, job enrichment and higher quality social context”. “Negative emotions, such asfear, anger, stress, hostility, sadness, and guilt, however increase the predictability of workplace deviance,”, and how the outside world views the organization. “Emotions normally are associated with specific events or occurrences and are intense enough to disrupt thought processes. ”. Moods on the other hand, are more “generalized feelings or states that are not typically identified with a particular stimulus and not sufficiently intense to interrupt ongoing thought processes”. [4] There can be many consequences for allowing negative emotions to affect your general attitude or mood at work. “Emotions and emotion management are a prominent feature of organizational life. It is crucial “to create a publicly observable and desirable emotional display as a part of a job role. ” Being able to not only control your emotions, but gauge the motions of those around you and effective influence them is imperative to success in the workplace. “Toxicity in the workplace is a regular occurrence and an occupational hazard. That is why the success of many projects, and the organization itself, depends on the success of “handlers,” the people (usually managers) whose interventions either assuage individuals' pain from toxicity or eliminate it completely

26. Explain basic causes of conflicts

Many people try to avoid conflict at all costs. Others tend to blame someone or something else for causing it. These responses do not resolve conflict and may make the situation worse.

Conflict is a normal part of life and there are many issues that could cause conflicts to arise within community organisations. Conflict can occur between employees, committee members, ordinary members, volunteers, clients or the community.

If not resolved, conflict can be highly destructive. However, committees can take steps to minimise potential situations of conflict before they arise or to resolve conflict constructively. The following sections discuss five of the most common factors that lead to conflict situations within organisations.


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