Analyze development of psychology

Analyze modern psychological science. Experiment and observation in psychology. Description neuroscience and behaviour. Parent and child relationship. Analyze of human motives. Basic types of temperament. Classification of character accentuations.

Рубрика Психология
Вид шпаргалка
Язык английский
Дата добавления 25.12.2015
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Misunderstandings

Conflict can arise from misunderstandings about:

· The nature, aims and objectives of a job

· Differing expectations about how things should be done

· Work conditions and wages

· The different responsibilities of management and employees

· Differences in values, beliefs, needs, or priorities

Universal source of conflict is the incompatibility of the parties' claims because of limited opportunities to meet them.

The lack of livelihood is a central element of all economic conflicts. Of course, all the while meeting the needs of the people there were no conflicts. But then it would stop the development of society itself. Life is woven of contradictions that lie at the heart of any conflict.

Traced some regularity in the causes of the conflict: the poorer the society and scarce commodities, the more it conflicts arise.

However, there is and such a causal relationship: the poor in society, but with a totalitarian regime, conflict - a very rare phenomenon.

27. Give recommendations of dispute resolution

Exit strategy from the conflict or dispute is a major strategy decisions opponent during the conflict.

There are five key strategies (K. Tomas): competition, compromise, cooperation, caring, adaptation.

Cooperation is considered to be the most effective strategy of behavior in the conflict. It involves the desire for a constructive discussion of opponents problems, review the other hand, not as the enemy but as an ally in the search for solutions. The most effective is a strong interdependence in situations of opponents; propensity to ignore the differences both in power; the importance of the decision to both parties; impartiality participants.

Selecting the exit strategy depends on various factors. They usually indicate the personal characteristics of the opponent, the level of damage caused to him and his own prejudice, availability of resources, the status of the opponent, the possible consequences, the seriousness of the problem being addressed, the duration of the conflict.

The most likely is the use of a compromise, because the steps towards making at least one of the parties can achieve asymmetric (one side gives more than the other - less) or symmetric (hand made approximately equal mutual concessions) agreement. In real life, a compromise is used frequently. For his achievements can be recommend an open conversation, which is to: the closure of the conflict; admit their mistakes already made in the conflict, they were probably there for you to recognize them almost worthless; to make concessions to the opponent, where possible, that the conflict is not the principal. In any conflict, you can find a few small things in which it is easy to give up. You can give way to serious, but not fundamental things, make suggestions regarding the concessions required by the opponent, they usually relate to the basic interests of the conflict; quietly, without negative emotions discuss mutual concessions, if necessary and possible to correct them; If you can agree, somehow fix the conflict is settled.

28. Describe the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument

The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode instrument consists of thirty pairs of statements. For each pair, the respondent must choose either the A or B item (for example, one item depicts collaborating while the other item describes avoiding). Each pair of statements was specifically designed, through a multi-stage research process, to be equal in social desirability.

The TKI uses two axes (influenced by the Mouton and Blake axes) called "assertiveness" and "cooperativeness. " The TKI identifies five different styles of conflict: Competing (assertive, uncooperative), Avoiding (unassertive, uncooperative), Accommodating (unassertive, cooperative), Collaborating (assertive, cooperative), and Compromising (intermediate assertiveness and cooperativeness). There are some seemingly obvious, but difficult to support, similarities between anger resolution-management style ideas with other tools and theories, such as DISC assessment, Social styles, and even the theory of Five Temperaments, which is based in the theories of ancient Greece.

Strengths

The TKI can be quickly administered and interpreted, requiring about 15 minutes to answer the questions and about an hour for interpretation by a trainer. Interpretation materials help respondents identify the appropriate use of the styles and help them become more comfortable with styles they are less familiar with. The TKI is widely known and is available in English, French, Danish, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, and Portuguese versions.

Compared to some other conflict instruments, the TKI has shown that it reduces the social desirability bias from over 90% to less than 20%. Also, other instruments that do not use a forced-choice format may inadvertently confuse the frequency of using each mode with the amount of conflict in the situation.

Weaknesses

Some respondents can find the forced choice style of questionnaire to be frustrating, but this could be a result of minimized social desirability bias (making it difficult to choose the answer that "looks" better).

29. Analyze basic human emotions

Emotion, in everyday speech, is any relatively brief conscious experience characterized by intense mental activity and a high degree of pleasure or displeasure.

Basic emotions

For more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct. Ekman's most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (e. g. disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. His research findings led him to classify six emotions as basic: anger, disgust,fear, happiness, sadness and surprise. Robert Plutchik agreed with Ekman's biologically driven perspective but developed the "wheel of emotions", suggesting eight primary emotions grouped on a positive or negative basis: joy versus sadness; anger versus fear; trust versus disgust; and surprise versus anticipation. [21] Some basic emotions can be modified to form complex emotions. The complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions. Alternatively, similar to the way primary colors combine, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience. For example, interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form contempt. Relationships exist between basic emotions, resulting in positive or negative influences.

30. Analyze forms of coping

In psychology, coping is expending conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems, and seeking to master, minimize or tolerate stress or conflict. The effectiveness of the coping efforts depend on the type of stress and/or conflict, the particular individual, and the circumstances.

Psychological coping mechanisms are commonly termed coping strategies or coping skills. Subconscious or non conscious strategies (e. g. defense mechanisms) are generally excluded. The term coping generally refers to adaptive or constructive coping strategies, i. e. the strategies reduce stress levels. However, some coping strategies can be considered maladaptive, i. e. stress levels increase. Maladaptive coping can thus be described, in effect, as non-coping. Furthermore, the term coping generally refers to reactive coping, i. e. the coping response follows the stressor. This contrasts with proactive coping, in which a coping response aims to head off a future -stressor.

Main coping forms or strategies:

· appraisal-focused: Directed towards challenging one's own assumptions, adaptive cognitive

· problem-focused: Directed towards reducing or eliminating a stressor, adaptive behavioral

· emotion-focused: Directed towards changing one's own emotional reaction

Here are coping mechanisms by type:

· Adaptive Mechanisms: That offer positive help.

· Attack Mechanisms: That push discomfort onto others.

· Avoidance Mechanisms: That avoid the issue.

· Behavioral Mechanisms: That change what we do.

· Cognitive Mechanisms: That change what we think.

· Conversion Mechanisms: That change one thing into another.

· Defense Mechanisms: Freud's original set.

· Self-harm Mechanisms: That hurt ourselves.

31. Describe Emotion and Emotion Regulation

Emotion, in everyday speech, is any relatively brief conscious experience characterized by intense mental activity and a high degree of pleasure or displeasure. Scientific discourse has drifted to other meanings and there is no consensus on a definition. Emotion is often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation. In some theories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion. Those acting primarily on emotion may seem as if they are not thinking, but mental processes are still essential, particularly in the interpretation of events. For example, the realization of danger and subsequent arousal of the nervous system (e. g. rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle tension) is integral to the experience of fear. Other theories, however, claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition.

Emotional intelligence (EI) or emotional quotient (EQ) is the ability of individuals to recognize their own and other people's emotions, to discriminate between different feelings and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior.

Emotional intelligence can be defined as the ability to monitor one's own and other people's emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior. [1] However, substantial disagreement exists regarding the definition of EI, with respect to both terminology and operationalizations. Currently, there are three main models of EI:

1. Ability model

2. Mixed model (usually subsumed under trait EI)

3. Trait model

Different models of EI have led to the development of various instruments for the assessment of the construct. While some of these measures may overlap, most researchers agree that they tap different constructs.

32. Evaluate the role of Emotional Intelligence in human success

Emotional intelligence can be defined as the ability to monitor one's own and other people's emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior. However, substantial disagreement exists regarding the definition of EI, with respect to both terminology and operationalizations. Currently, there are three main models of EI:

1. Ability model

2. Mixed model (usually subsumed under trait EI)[31][32]

3. Trait model

Different models of EI have led to the development of various instruments for the assessment of the construct. While some of these measures may overlap, most researchers agree that they tap different constructs.

Self-awareness. The first thing that is essential for any degree of emotional intelligence is self-awareness. People with a high degree of self-awareness have a solid understanding of their own emotions, their strengths, weaknesses, and what drives them.

Ability To Self-Regulate Emotions. We all have emotions which drive us and there is nothing we can do to avoid them. People who are good at self-regulation, however, are able to manage their emotions so that they do not control their words and actions. While they feel bad moods and impulses as much as anyone else, they do not act upon them. People who act upon their negative feelings create havoc, disruptions, and lasting bad feelings all around them.

33. Analyze gender differences in expressing and recognizing of emotions

It can be tempting to generalize when considering the differences between men, women, and the various ways in which they express their emotions; men and women from various cultures have been shown to accept the stereotype that women are more emotional than men. Typically, this perspective on men is only held in cases of discrete emotions and their corresponding expressions such as happiness, fear, disgust, or sadness. When men experience pride or anger, however, most people are much less likely to assume this stereotype. Leaving gender stereotypes unchallenged would have various potential consequences. The belief that women are more emotional than men questions our understanding of emotional reactivity and regulation systems. Furthermore, this assumption can have profound impacts on the way we interact with one another and our society at large. For these reasons, an emerging division of modern psychology research is dedicated to the critical examination of these stereotypes

Many researchers have concluded that the observed emotional differences between men and women primarily stem from socialized gender roles, rather than biology. Thus, the range of emotional expression that certain populations experience is based, in large part, on their culture's expectations for femininity and masculinity

Many psychologists reject the notion that men actually experience emotions less frequently than do women. Instead, researchers have suggested that men exhibit restrictiveemotionality. Restrictive emotionality refers to a tendency to inhibit the expression of certain emotions and an unwillingness to self-disclose intimate feelings. Men's restrictive emotionality has been shown to influence health, emotional appraisal and overall identity. Furthermore, tendencies toward restrictive emotionality are correlated with an increased risk of certain anxiety disorders.

Many societies seem to have accepted the popular viewpoint that women are simply more emotional than men are. However, various psychological and cultural studies have revealed that our reality is much more complicated than that. . Studies suggest that parents may encourage or discourage certain emotions in their children as early as infancy. Whether these tendencies are conscious or subconscious, many experts agree that different rules are taught to boys and girls regarding what emotions to express and how to appropriately express them. For example, women are, in fact, more likely to accurately express happiness while men are more likely to accurately express anger; studies show that that the respective genders are praised for fulfilling this expectation, while they may be met with disapproval if they fail to behave in the way deemed appropriate for their gender. Evidently, as social animals, humans are strongly pressured by these reactions. However, it is our responsibility to be conscious of these differences, their causes, and the potential shortcomings of this system. By understanding and managing our emotions, we can begin to develop healthier relationships, both with ourselves and with others.

34. Explain emotion-focused coping with stress

Stress arises when individuals perceive a discrepancy between the physical or psychological demands of a situation and the resources of his or her biological, psychological or social systems. There are many ways of coping with stress. Their effectiveness depends on the type of stressor, the particular individual, and the circumstances. For example, if you think about the way your friends deal with stressors like exams, you will see a range of different coping responses. Some people will pace around or tell you how worried they are, others will revise, or pester their teachers for clues. There are two types of coping responses emotion focused and problem focused

Emotion-focused Coping

Emotion-focused coping involves trying to reduce the negative emotional responses associated with stress such as embarrassment, fear, anxiety, depression, excitement and frustration. This may be the only realistic option when the source of stress is outside the person's control.

Drug therapy can be seen as emotion focused coping as it focuses on the arousal caused by stress not the problem. Other emotion focused coping techniques include:

o Distraction, e. g. keeping yourself busy to take your mind off the issue.

o Emotional disclosure. This involves expressing strong emotions by talking or writing about negative events which precipitated those emotions. This is an important part of psychotherapy.

o Praying for guidance and strength.

o Meditation, e. g. mindfulness.

o Eating more, e. g. comfort food.

o Drinking alcohol.

o Using drugs.

o Journaling, e. g. writing a gratitude diary

o Cognitive reappraisal. This is a form of cognitive change that involves construing a potentially emotion-eliciting situation in a way that changes its emotional impact.

o Suppressing (stopping/inhibition of) negative thoughts or emotions. Suppressing emotions over an extended period of time compromises immune competence and leads to poor physical health.

35. Explain problem-focused coping with stress

Stress arises when individuals perceive a discrepancy between the physical or psychological demands of a situation and the resources of his or her biological, psychological or social systems.

There are many ways of coping with stress. Their effectiveness depends on the type of stressor, the particular individual, and the circumstances. For example, if you think about the way your friends deal with stressors like exams, you will see a range of different coping responses. Some people will pace around or tell you how worried they are, others will revise, or pester their teachers for clues.

There are two types of coping responses emotion focused and problem focused

Problem-focused coping targets the causes of stress in practical ways which tackles the problem or stressful situation that is causing stress, consequently directly reducing the stress.

Problem focused strategies aim to remove or reduce the cause of the stressor, including:

o Problem-solving.

o Time-management.

o Obtaining instrumental social support.

Critical Evaluation

In general problem-focused coping is best, as it removes the stressor, so deals with the root cause of the problem, providing a long term solution. Problem-focused strategies are successful in dealing with stressors such as discrimination, HIV infections. However, it is not always possible to use problem-focused strategies. For example, when someone dies, problem-focused strategies may not be very helpful for the bereaved. Dealing with the feeling of loss requires emotion-focused coping. Problem focused approached will not work in any situation where it is beyond the individual's control to remove the source of stress. They work best when the person can control the source of stress. It is not a productive method for all individuals. For example, not all people are able to take control of a situation, or perceived a situation as controllable.

36. Give an example of Efficient coping strategies

Coping with stress

Stress has a major impact on mental and physical health. Now that you know how to recognize your stress and identify its source, let's see how you can cope with it.

Efficient coping strategies: Coping strategies are different depending on the situation and the person; here are some good coping strategies.

· Be positive!

· Look at each obstacle you encounter as a learning experience

· e. g. you may not have done well on your mid-term exam, but that has motivated you to study harder and ace your final exam.

· Make the choice not to over-react to stressors and deal with them one at a time

· e. g. take a few deep breaths and carry on.

· Take an objective view of your stressor

· e. g. is preparing dinner for 12 people really that horrible?

· Communicate!

· Don't ruminate or bottle up your emotions, as this will lead to an explosion later on.

· Accept yourself (and others).

· No one is perfect and there is always room for mistakes.

· Make connections with people

· Social support is key!

· Deal effectively with mistakes

· i. e. Learn from your mistakes and apply them to future decision making.

· Deal effectively with successes also!

· This will build on your competence.

· Develop self-discipline and control

· e. g. train yourself to study harder in preparation for your final exam, or train yourself to work out four times a week to lose those pounds you gained since last Thanksgiving dinner!

· Maintenance!

· Practice, practice, practice for a long life of resilient living!

Now that you know how to recognize your stress and you know the different coping strategies, you just need to find the coping strategies that work best for you and apply them to your daily life.

37. Define Types of conflicts in Psychology

Three types of conflicts are: 1. Intrapersonal Conflicts, 2. Interpersonal Conflicts and 3. Unconscious Conflicts

1. Intrapersonal conflicts:

These are the conflicts caused within the individual. These conflicts arise as a result of two or more motives or goals to be achieved at a time. Hence, these are called goal conflicts. Lewin has described three types of goal conflicts.

However, in addition to these there is one more conflict in which the individual faces more than one attracting or repelling forces making the individual to experience more stress. This is called multiple approach avoidance conflict. These are as follows: 1. Approach-approach conflict: In this type of conflict individual will have two desires with positive valence which are equally powerful. For example, a person has two attractive job offers and he has to choose any one of them- tension arises. 2. Avoidance-avoidance conflict:

This conflict involves two goals with negative valence. At times the individual is forced to choose one among two negative goals. In such conflicts, both are unwanted goals, but he cannot keep quiet without opting also. For example, a woman must work at a job which she dislikes very much or else she has to remain unemployed. 3. Approach-avoidance conflict: This is also a most complex conflict and very difficult to resolve. Because in this type of conflict a person is both attracted and repelled by the same goal object. Here the goal object will have both positive and negative valences.

2. Interpersonal conflicts:

Interpersonal conflict is caused between individuals. This can be resolved through some strategies such as avoiding, smoothing, forcing, confronting and compromising. Assertive behaviour and I am ok, you are ok interpersonal orientation help to resolve such conflicts easily.

3. Unconscious Conflict: The mental conflict below the level of conscious awareness is called unconscious conflict. The conflicts in conscious level, when repressed, shifts to unconscious. Here the desires which cannot be satisfied at conscious level are repressed to unconscious level as a mechanism of escaping. Many of our wants raised by Id may not be socially acceptable. Such wants are objected by the Ego and the Super ego. Hence these are repressed to unconscious.

38. Give a comparative analysis of verbal and non-verbal information's in public speaking

Verbal delivery enhances understanding of your message. You'll want to work towards an elevated, conversational style. The audience wants you to talk to them not at them. Use a sincere tone that lets the audience know you're invested in the material you're presenting

· Incorporate pauses to highlight key ideas, transition between points, and/or grab the audience's attention again.

· Think about the volume of your voice--can the person in the back hear you clearly? Keep in mind, working with a microphone may make it necessary for you to modify your volume.

· Pay special attention to the rate of speech you're using; remember the goal isn't to finish as soon as possible. You want to make sure that the audience is understanding the material and connecting with it. The rate you use should allow you to focus on explaining the material carefully.

· Having variety in your rate, volume, and inflection can help give emphasis the material and sustain audience interest. Be especially conscious of these vocal delivery features when giving examples or sharing an illustration or story.

Nonverbal delivery enhances understanding of your message. Eye contact is crucial in keeping you and the audience connected. The audience forms understanding and makes judgments about your material based on their ability to see your eyes. You can see if you are making sense to the audience by looking at them and gauging their nonverbal feedback.

· Anxiety can cause a speaker to see an audience as a menacing big blur rather than a gathering of interested individuals.

· To help you connect on a person-to-person level, locate the “friendly” faces in the audience--the people who give positive feedback in the form of smiles, nods and attentive listening positions. Speak directly to these people, varying your eye contact between them. You'll begin to notice more and more “friendly” faces to connect with as the audience is drawn into your speech

39. Analyze the importance of self-confidence in public speaking

Self-confidence in public speaking executes very important role. Public Speaking

This is something that seems to scare many people and I'm one of them. The reason why it is so terrifying is that you are performing in front of lots of people who you may or may not know well. There really is no logic to this fear that most people feel when giving a presentation or speech. Let me try to show you why and how you can become a better public speaker.

Public speaking is very much a question of self confidence. But how can you look and feel confident when faced with the challenge of giving a presentation or speech to a large number of people? Firstly, feeling and thinking confidently are connected. What's more if you feel confident it will show and the reaction you get from your audience will be a positive boost to your confidence which will spur you on to success.

Let's start with the problem though. Being terrified of public speaking. What can you do about this? Try the following:

· If you have to speak in public then rehearse well and have all the information, notes etc. in advance so that you will feel well prepared.

· Go over the event in your mind and see yourself coping with the situation well and foresee any potential problems you may have but see yourself dealing even with those with complete confidence.

· See the speech or presentation as a challenge, a positive opportunity to improve yourself.

· Learn to slow down when you are under stress, most people panic and rush ahead but you need to calm yourself and slow down, this will look more confident. If you think you look more confident you will feel more confident

· Always smile and you will look and feel more confident.

· Learn to relax your muscles and remove tension from your body

40. Give an example of a successful speaker in history: explain your choice

He treats prepared text “the way jazz greats soar from the sheet music. ” President Clinton's improvisations are the stuff of legend. He “improvised 20% of his very first State of the Union address and explained his health-care plan from memory to a joint session of Congress after the teleprompter displayed the text of an earlier speech. ” No one does it better. He proved it again at this year's Democratic National Convention where he nearly doubled the number of words in his prepared speech. The best part? Every aside, anecdote and additional detail was intentional - creating the kind of communications experience to rally the herd (including the undecided) and the cause. Because of this rare skill, he is on our list again, and continues to be the envy of speakers everywhere.

41. Give recommendations for successful public speaking

Experts recommend to allocate enough time to collect the necessary material, consider the structure and prepare for action to specific audiences. It is important to pay attention to the following items, arranged in order of priority:

Allow enough time (a few days or even a week). During this time, try to prepare all the abstracts of your presentation and form its structure.

Consider the interest of the audience. You need to know their future students: their interests, knowledge in this area, as well as anything that may affect their perception of your public speaking.

Set a goal, get unsolved problem. Try to talk about solving certain topical issues that affect your audience - it will cause a genuine interest in your presentation.

Collect and record all the stuff that you can find on your topic. This will help not to miss anything. Having good knowledge of your speech - is half the battle.

Use your own thoughts. The real preparation for performance is that all the material collected (view abstracts) should be let through and form their own position.

Get back-up knowledge. This will help you feel confident and will allow you to easily answer all questions and comments to fend off the audience after or during performances.

Rules for the preparation of the report:

Learn the important parts of the text. Learn beginning and ending of speech, and other important places in your speech. Try to rehearse at least once uttering the text in order to understand which parts cause you the greatest difficulties.

Prepare a good introduction. Do not immediately start your speech with the topic of performance, it is better to begin to greet the audience, thank the crowd of people, maybe a joke or touch on all known relevant news, events.

Explore and learn the ending. As it is known, is usually the first and last word performances the audience remembered best. It is the final part of your speech, it is best to make the main ideas and key findings.

Take the record if necessary. But take it a rule to use the records only when absolutely necessary, as read from notes text kills all impression of public speech.

42. Make self-analysis of your ability of public speaking

Speaking to an audience, you must have the knowledge and skills relating to performances, but also the skills of public speaking. And this knowledge, and skills can be grouped as follows: * organizational knowledge; * managerial and operational roles and responsibilities; * knowledge and skills relating to performance; * skills in preparing speeches; * sensitivity and the ability to quickly restore the physical and mental strength; * human qualities; * obligation; * mental alertness and creativity; * self-awareness and self-development; * participation; * confidence; * humor; * self-confidence. Some of these items are inborn human abilities, but most can be purchased and developed for a long time.

As a successful lecturer 1. Looks confident; 2. Clear and accessible reveals the basic provisions of his speech; 3. Formulates logical thoughts; 4. Says interesting;

-Year University studies, participated in numerous conferences, the defense of the thesis, have taught us not to be afraid of public speaking, and feel confident, especially when the topic is represented by the attention I deeply studied. Knowledge of the material gives me the opportunity in simple and accessible language to convey it to the audience, to build up his speech by linking all parts of speech in a logical chain. The explanation in plain language and always attracts the listener becomes interesting, especially if supported by visual materials and examples. This, too, we have learned, making numerous presentations.

5. Performs emotionally, able to infect the emotions of listeners to call the enthusiasm; Again, for the years spent at the university, because day by renting tests, colloquiums, work performed, I was convinced that no emotion cannot be 100% convince listeners of the importance that you give them presents. If you have your theme itself does not cause any emotions, how to create interest in it from the listener and get a good assessment of their work. 6. Maintain eye contact with the audience; 7. Able to quickly restructure and find contact with the audience; Making numerous presentations, I used to tell, without looking at the records, and looking directly at the audience and noticed their relation to my statement that gives me the opportunity, if necessary, readjust. 8. It has a sense of humor; -Of Course not easy to dilute humorous speech at a scientific or technical subject, but it is an important quality of the output of which I have to work.

9. Strictly adheres to the established regulations (starts and ends on time performance). Because events such as conferences, presentations, time is usually regulated - the ability to keep within the allotted time we have built up. I cannot carry themselves to experienced speakers, but the basic skills already acquired and still to finalize them. In addition, we used to speak in front of their peers and teachers, and to the audience with a high level of professional or scientific training cannot act as if there is no new views and approaches to the problem, so you should advance to think about what to tell the individual, especially an authoritative, important figures if they come.

43. Analyze the role of stereotypes in cross-cultural communication

In social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things.

Using stereotypes people endowed by certain traits and qualities, and on this basis it is predicted behavior. Thus, in the communication in general, and in the process of intercultural contacts stereotypes play a very important role. Stereotypes firmly embedded in our value system, are part of it and provide the kind of protection our position in society. For this reason, the use of patterns occurs in each cross-cultural situation. Without the use of these very common, culturally specific schemes assess both their own group, and other cultural groups cannot do.

The relationship between the cultural affiliation of a person and character traits attributed to him usually is not adequate. People belonging to different cultures, have different understanding of the world that makes communication with the common position impossible. Guided by the norms and values ??of their culture, the man himself determines what facts and how to assess world. This greatly affects the nature of our communication with other cultures. For example, when dealing with a lively gesticulating while speaking Italians, the Germans, who are used to a different style of communication, there can be a stereotype of an extremely unorganized expression and Italians. The Italians, in turn, will become the stereotype of Germans as cold and restrained nation. Depending on the methods and forms of their use of stereotypes can be useful or harmful to communications.

Effective stereotyping helps people to understand the situation and act in accordance with the new circumstances. Therefore, the stereotype may not only be an obstacle to communication, but also bring some benefit. This is possible in the following cases:

* If it consciously adheres. The individual must understand that stereotype reflects the group norms and values, the group features and attributes, rather than the specific qualities of one individual from this group;

* If the stereotype is descriptive rather than evaluative. This suggests stereotypes reflected in the real and objective characteristics and properties of the people in this group, but their assessment of how good or bad;

* If the stereotype is accurate. This means that the stereotype is to adequately express the characteristics and traits of the group to which the person belongs;

* If the stereotype is only conjecture about the group, but not direct information about it. This means that the first impression of a group is not always a reliable knowledge of all individuals of this group;

* If the stereotype is modified, that is, based on further observations and experiences with real people or comes from the experience of the real situation.

* In situations of intercultural contacts stereotypes are effective only when they are used as the first and the positive suspicion about a person or situation and are not regarded as the only true information about them.

Stereotypes become ineffective and difficult to communicate when we mistakenly refer people to the wrong groups correctly describe the group norms, stereotypes when mixed with certain description of the individual and when we fail to modify the stereotypes based on actual observations and experience. The emphasis in the communication on how to use these stereotypes leads to the fact that they can become a serious obstacle in the cross-cultural contacts.

There are a number of reasons, according to which stereotypes can hinder intercultural communication.

* For the stereotypes you cannot identify the individual characteristics of people. Stereotyping assumes that all members have the same characteristics. This approach is applied to the whole group and the single individual for a certain period of time regardless of individual variation.

* Stereotypes repeat and reinforce certain erroneous beliefs and beliefs as long as people do not start to accept them as true.

* Stereotypes are based on half-truths and distortions.

Users retain their stereotypes, even though it contradicts the reality, so in a situation of intercultural contact is important to be able to effectively deal with stereotypes, that is aware of them and be able to give them up to the fact they do not conform reality.

44. Give a systemic analysis of Artificial Intelligence

The concept of artificial intelligence is usually used to refer to the ability of a computer system to perform the tasks inherent in human intelligence, for example, problems of inference and learning.

The main feature of intelligent systems is that they are based on knowledge, or rather, on some of their submission. Knowledge is understood to be stored (by computer) information, formalized in accordance with certain rules, which the computer can be used in inference on certain algorithms.

When comparing the operations that make up the work of the machine, and operations as the units of human activity revealed significant differences - in the psychological sense "operation" reflects the way to achieve results, the characteristic of the process, while with regard to engine performance, this term is used in the logical-mathematical sense (characterized by the result).

The works on artificial intelligence is constantly used the term "goal. " In psychology, "target" is a constitutive feature acts from operations (and activities in general). While in artificial systems "purpose" refers to a finite situation sought by the system. Signs of this situation should be clearly identified and described in a formal language. The objectives of the human activity of a different nature. The ultimate situation may reflect different subject. This reflection can be characterized by varying degrees of clarity, distinctness. Moreover, for human characteristic not only achieving ready purposes but also the formation of new ones.

Also, the work of artificial intelligence, is characterized not only by the presence of operations, programs, "targets", and evaluation functions. And artificial systems have some sort of "value orientation". If people in the activity is the use of not only constant, but situationally emerging and rapidly changing assessments is also important difference between the verbal and logical and emotional assessments. The difference between man and machine at the level of activity in the existence of needs and motives.

45. Estimate benefits of interactions of Psychology and IT

The role of psychology in the study of the problem of creating artificial intelligence cannot be overestimated. First of all, the interest results of the study of human thinking for the purpose of modeling and playing on computer systems. In addition, actively studied problems of automation of human activity and the psychological characteristics of human communication with a computer, although many experts believe that the actual user communicates only with the programmer "through the computer. " Note that some of the results of computer science and cybernetics may be used in conducting psychological research. On the other hand, the terms of psychology play an increasingly important role in the study of the problem of creating artificial intelligence systems. For example, Professor AI Shevchenko proposed the following definition of AI: Artificial Intelligence - is the algorithm for solving the tasks created an artificial consciousness. At the same time, under artificial consciousness mean higher control system of the machine, the owner of knowledge about themselves and their surroundings. Thus, in the field of intelligent systems psychology and science, first of all - computer science is interrelated and can interact constructively. Highly relevant is the study of the psychological effects of the use of information technology. Computers and information systems are used in. all new areas of human activity, affecting mental processes and transforming not only individual action, but also human activity in general. From a psychological point of view, the interaction of man with the systems of computer converts activities through its mediation sign systems. Despite the variety of active Internet users, there are three main types of their activities: cognitive, gaming and communication. These activities correspond to the varieties of global change (transformation) of the person:

1. Enthusiasm for knowledge in programming and telecommunications, or, as an extreme option, hacking; 2. Passion for computer games and, in particular, games via the Internet or, as an extreme option, the so-called game addiction. ; 3. Passion for network communication or as a last resort. Alternatively, so-called Internet addiction - a kind of dependence on the internet. Only in extreme cases of this kind of personal transformation are entirely negative; Contrary to popular belief, they can lead to a positive development of personality.

46. Analyze the role of psychological knowledge in programming

When you create a highly efficient and reliable programs (software packages) that meets all modern requirements is necessary not only skillfully use the provided computers and software base of modern computers, but also to consider intuition and appropriate to complement the process of developing a program of pilot studies, which are based on the concept of the psychology of thinking in the study Problems of Computational Mathematics and Informatics. Psychology of programming - the science of human action dealing with computing and information resources of automated systems, in which knowledge of the capabilities and abilities of man as a developer of these systems can be deepened by the methods of experimental psychology, analysis of the processes of thinking and perception, methods of social, individual and industrial psychology.

The objectives of the psychology of programming along with better use of the computer, based on a deep knowledge of human thinking, and determination is usually experimentally, aptitudes and abilities of the programmer as a person. Particular attention is paid to the personal qualities of the programmer, which can, in varying degrees, have an impact on the reliability and security of software developed by them: Internal / external control. High / low motivation. The ability to be precise. diligence, tolerance of uncertainty, selfishness, the degree of passion, risk tolerance, self-esteem and personal relationships programmer in the team.

47. Explain the role of understanding in team work

* Team created to bring together the knowledge and experience of the people to provide more comprehensive and in-depth thinking, to create opportunities of strategy and creative thinking in solving problems. Lack of trust among team members leads to a fragmentation of the common approaches to solving problems. Instead of discussing the best solution, the delegation of authority to other members, the team is trying to choose the safest from her point of view the solution. Lack of trust can be manifested in poor cooperation, weak coordination and a minimum exchange of knowledge and resources. The work done by the team, has many advantages. The main ones are the diversity of knowledge, ideas and tools that have the team members, as well as the camaraderie between them. Most frequent feature of high-performance teams - a solidarity based on understanding. So, in such teams' members will be more flexible and effective in achieving the goals they set themselves. The lack of understanding in the working atmosphere of the team, no doubt, affect its performance due to unnecessary stress and tension between employees. Thus, the unity of the workplace may eventually lead to an increase in the company's success. In a team where there is a mutual understanding between the members, as well as an understanding of the goals and objectives there is concentration on opportunities, looking for ways to improve the ideas, which is necessary to obtain a result.

Team members based on mutual focus on process rather than on the individual; they respect everyone in the team, assuming good motives; and they are completely given to the decisions and strategies of the team, creating accountability within it. Also, a team of strong ties among its members, friendly command environment, dedication and personal contribution of a team member in the decision making process, the stronger is the morale. Successful business strategy is usually carried out an effective team with a high level team cohesion.

48. «Strength and weaknesses of my character» essay

Ideal people do not happen. Each person has their flaws and good qualities.

Positive aspects of my character:

1. Optimism. I can find a good hand in almost any situation.

2. Calm. I was difficult to anger or upset, I rarely lose my temper.

3. Tact. I know how to respect other people's feelings, never imposed on people, I know, when I'd better go, or when it is better to stay.

4. Good intuition. I can anticipate developments, guess what to expect from the people, and what is not. And often my guesses are correct.

5. I am able to competently express their thoughts.

These traits of my character helped me to achieve your goals in front of you.

Minuses:

1. Inability to refuse. It's hard to say "no" if I have to ask for something. Even if I do not want to carry out this request.

It is known that the act creates a habit, and the habit - character. Therefore, it is necessary to engage in self-education, take care of yourself, to be able to see its flaws, treat yourself objectively in order to overcome in his character all the bad things and change for the better - for the better for themselves and for others.

49. Analyze: Personality traits and Social Communication

To expand communication issues of greatest interest is the person realizes himself as a communicative personality. In communication theory to describe the subjects of the communicative process uses the concept of "communicative personality. " The initial concept for the study of communicative personality is primarily a sociological concept of personality. Personality - is the quality of the human system, due to its inclusion in the system of social relations and institutions, acquired by the individual in the subject of activity and communication. Personality is a product of the development of the individual in society. The multiplicity of approaches and variety of theories and concepts of the person reveals the complexity of the problem of personality. The sociological concept of identity was formed in the late 19th-early 20th century. It has been developed: the "theory of the mirror I", role theory, the concept of personal neo behaviorism, reference group theory. Personality in the system of communication is considered primarily in terms of its role in the formation of speech, expressive arrangements, individual speech features. Defines the parameters of communicative personality are: motivational, cognitive and functional. So communicative personality - a personality, with a collection of individual properties and characteristics, which provide not only the ability to select a particular situation adequate scheme of information transmission, but also can receive the information correctly.

50. Describe Emotion and Emotion Regulation

Emotions - a subjective experiences relating to situations and events that are important to humans. Emotions are to a greater or lesser extent regulate the life of each of us. Usually them recognize the four basic functions: Motivational regulating, called for action to encourage, guide and regulate. Communicative responsible for understanding. That emotions tell us about the mental and physical condition of the person and help to choose the right course of action when dealing with him. Through emotions we can understand each other even without knowing the language. Signal allows you to communicate their needs to others with the help of emotional and expressive movements, gestures, facial expressions, etc. Protective expressed in that instant emotional reaction a person is able in some cases to save him from the dangers Moreover, all the emotions can be divided into several types. Character experiences (pleasant or unpleasant) determines the sign of emotion - positive or negative. Also, emotions are divided into types depending on the impact of human activities - sthenic and asthenia. The first person to encourage action, and second, on the contrary, lead to stiffness and inactivity. But the same emotion can have a different impact on people, or one person in dissimilar situations. The main human emotions: joy; fear; excitement; interest; surprise; resentment; anger, rage, rage; embarrassment; a pity. A person's ability to control emotions and manage related to the level of emotional intelligence. Managing emotions and feelings requires awareness and control over the form of their manifestation. Managing emotions consists of several steps.


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