Accent Bias in ELF Context: A Scoping Literature Review (2002-2022) to Identify Ways to Global Citizenship

Fig. 1. Flowchart of review process

In Fig. 2 we present the distribution of thematic areas in a hierarchical order with `Language and linguistics' and `Psychology' being the most common ones when it comes to accent attitude and accent bias research. The interdisciplinary character of the review is enhanced by the inclusion of diverse adjacent domains which contribute to the presentation of varied perspectives on the phenomenon of concern.

A total amount of 31 regional and nonnative English accents were analysed in the reviewed papers. The regional accents included 5 English varieties (Received Pronunciation, Estuary English, General Northern English, Multicultural London English, Urban West Yorkshire English), 3 German varieties (Bavarian, Saxon, Berlin), 2 French varieties (upper-class Parisian, banlieue), 2 Spanish varieties (Castilian and Latin American), and 3 Chinese varieties (Mandarin, Cantonese, Hong Kong).

Among the non-native English accents were 9 European (Austrian-German, Spanish, Czech, Dutch, French, Italian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian), 5 Asian (Thai, Korean, Chinese, Indian, Japanese), 2 Eastern (Arabic, Turkish), 2 African (Nigerian, Afrikaans), and Latin American accents.

For literature analysis and synthesis, the reviewed articles were divided into 6 categories: 1) non-native accent attitude (2002-2022);

2) accent attitude in education (2002-2020);

3) accent bias at workplace (2006-202l);

4) accent-based digital divide (2009-202l);

5) non-native accent perception (2008-2021);

6) neural bases of accent perception (20122022).

The variety of accents investigated in the reviewed articles is presented in Fig. 3.

Fig. 2. Thematic areas of accent attitude research

Fig. 3. Accents discussed in the review and their relation to review sections

Limitations to the study

The primary limitation of this review is reliance on previously published research and the availability of these studies. For accessibility and quality reasons, only English-written top-rank journal research articles collected from two databases were included in the search. Articles from authors working in 18 different countries were analyzed. The number of accents discussed is limited to 31, of which 57 % are European. The inclusion of non-English accents was deliberate to indicate the pervasive character of accent bias. The selection of accents and research contexts might have conditioned the perspective of the reviewed articles.

Acknowledging these limitations, this review aims to elucidate new dimensions of accent attitude in terms of educating a global citizen, rather than imposing a monolithic set of educational prescriptions.

Discussion

To answer the Research Question, we discuss the results that emerged from the analysis.

NON-NATIVE ACCENT ATTITUDE

In this section cases of intranational and international accent bias in different realms of life are discussed. The most salient example of Inner Circle accent bias is found in the landmark findings about UK accent attitudes for the last fifty years (Bishop et al., 2005; Levon et al., 2021). What follows is that many of patterns of bias against certain accents in England persisted across several decades. It is important to note that intranational accent bias is not limited to the regional varieties of English. Such cases have also been reported for native speakers of Dutch, German, Korean, and Singaporean (Chang & Kang, 2020; Hendriks & van Meurs, 2022; O'Brien, 2014).

In relation to accent bias within Outer and Expanding Circles, one of the most dramatic cases was described by Devadoss (2020) who examined the signs of nationalism in aural encounters of NES and Tamil Indians. Prejudicial attitudes manifested in subtle othering and microaggressions as well as their physical, emotional, and psychological discriminatory effects. NNES of Latinx, Arabic, and Toronto accents nave also been found prone to accent-based stereotyping among Americans (Sumantry & Choma, 2021). This is consistent with the findings of Puhacheuskaya & Jarvi- kivi (2022) who write that non-native Chinese English speakers face numerous challenges in day-to-day communication, which may translate into negative consequences for many aspects of life.

There is a consensus among researchers that continued negative attitudes might be the result of social categorization and labelling. They also note a significant impact of ethno- centrism on perceptions of non-native accent (Neuliep & Speten-Hansen, 2013). Cases of positive accent bias are still rare (Alvarez- Mosquera & Marin-Gutierrez, 2021; Fairchild et al., 2020).

ACCENT ATTITUDE IN EDUCATION

International and EFL/ESL education are one of the most susceptible to language prejudice. About two decades ago attitudes toward international students were unfavorable and even hostile due to intercultural communication emotions and stereotypes (Spencer- Rodgers & McGovern, 2002). Seeking positive evaluations, international students remained attached to Inner Circle native speaker models (Jenkins, 2009).

Recent studies indicate an important shift in the attitude to non-native accent among EFL/ ESL learners as an identity marker that many of them aspire to preserve. However, some duality has been observed in accent attitude among Chinese learners and teachers of English. For both groups, accent-identity connection is valued and viewed as positive (Sung, 2016), which is also relevant for Thai students (Boonsuk et al., 2021). However, native-like accent is still a measure of this success (Fang, 2021). Similar duality can be traced in the study of Tsang (2020). From Chinese learners' perspectives, EFL instructors without standard native English accent should not be judged as less competent. Meanwhile, certain learners tended to like their EFL teachers to have standard native accent.

Another point that researchers touch upon is reliance on L1 accents in major language proficiency testing systems. Despite convincing results in mapping out a profile of intelligible NNES suitable to produce listening comprehension tests (Kang et al., 2018a, 2018b), it is still waiting to be fully incorporated.

ACCENT BIAS AT WORKPLACE

Much evidence of non-native English accent bias at workplace has been found through-out the last fifteen years with job seeker being the most sensitive cohort. As stated by Segrest Purkiss et al. (2006), applicants with the ethnic name, speaking with Hispanic accent, were viewed less positively by interviewers, which affected hiring decisions. Non-native accent might reduce the credibility of non-native job seekers, eyewitnesses, reporters or news anchors speaking with Polish, Turkish, Austrian- German, Korean and Italian accents (Lev-Ari & Keysar, 2010). All this is equally characteristic of regional varieties. Speakers of a Saxon, Bavarian, or Berlin accent were perceived as lower in competence and hirability than those speaking standard German (RakiC et al., 2011).

There are signs of accent bias in a wide range of professions. It is found that call centers employees with an accent get low ratings when a service outcome is unfavorable for customers (Wang et al., 2013). In the commercial context, a speaker with regional accent is likely to be negatively evaluated in terms of competency, status, likeability, and dynamism (Hendriks & van Meurs, 2022). When interacting with a nonstandard accented person consumers express lower intentions to purchase and are less willing to recommend a product (Mai & Hoffmann, 2014). In healthcare, doctors with standard native accents are perceived as more competent (Baquiran & Nicoladis, 2019; Rakic, 2019). Conversely, Black African-born nurses face discriminatory and racially based barriers to their professional advancement in the US (Iheduru- Anderson 2020). The US jurors are likely to fall victim of accent bias and judge Black American defendants more negatively (Cantone et al., 2019). For politicians and diplomats with nonstandard accent there is high risk of considerable bias, associated with a loss of reputation (Chang & Kang, 2020; Peled & Bonotti, 2019).

Among the detrimental psychological effects for a NNS employee were mentioned a feeling of exclusion and devaluation, low professional motivation (Russo et al., 2017). Although suggestions are made about unconscious social categorization on the part of native speakers, Levon et al. (2021) argue that people in power have the ability to limit how much accent bias interferes with their judgement and resist its effects.

ACCENT-BASED DIGITAL DIVIDE

Digital technology is a relatively new but growing area, where accent bias manifests itself. The first attempts to deal with nonstandard accents in voiced equipment were mainly nativespeakerist. Scientists were focused on voice-transformation techniques that supposedly could disguise a speaker's foreign accent and generate a so called “ideal” native- accented voice (Felps et al., 2009). Over time the approach to Automated speech recognition (ASR) technologies has become more holistic and inclusive. It has become clear that to recognize foreign accents, ASR should be equipped with an extensive speech corpus of non-native English, such as L2-Arctic (Zhao et al., 2018). However, ELF corpora are still rare and limited in the number of foreign accents.

Despite the emerging technological innovations, understanding regional and non-native English accents by machines remains a weak spot for developers. This is largely due to the lack of diversity among employees of technological companies and the use of American Midwestern accent to train speech technology, which makes it innately biased and causes “forced assimilation” of the NNES users (Mul- laney et al., 2021, p. 181). This can be exemplified 'by the study of Koenecke et al. (2020) who identified large racial disparities towards African American adults in the performance of popular commercial ASR systems and digital personal assistants.

NON-NATIVE ACCENT PERCEPTION

The research reviewed in this section is mainly related to the issues of intelligibility, context-dependent perception, effects of exposure to foreign accent on adaptability and comprehensibility.

Most studies center around the connection between familiarity with foreign accent and phonetic convergence. In case of NNES, no strong correlations were found between their ability to identify native and non-native English accents and the amount of exposure to native language (Scales et al., 2006). However, much research provides evidence of NES ability to adapt to foreign accent if exposed to multiple non-native speakers (Bradlow & Brent, 2008; Wagner et al., 2021; Weber et al., 2011;). In ESL/EFL context, teachers compared to nonteachers were less biased by speakers' foreign accents (Huang, 2013). Positive effects of bilingualism in terms of foreign accent recognition and ability to adapt to arbitrary accents were also found (Fuse et al., 2018; Weber et al., 2014).

Another facilitator of phonetic convergence to non-standard accent is contextual predictability. The correlation between the context and comprehensibility occurs in such a way that the former has a greater impact on native listeners' perceptions of foreign speech than accentedness (Incera et al., 2017).

Researchers of intelligibility agree that non-native speech can be more intelligible for native speakers than native speech, even if moderately comprehensible (O'Brien, 2014; Xie & Fowler, 2013). As for heavy foreign- accented NNES, they are more likely to be evaluated negatively even on the part of nonnative speakers (Dragojevich et al., 2017).

To foster inclusion and participation of NNES in listening tests production, Kang et al. (2018a, b) come up with the characteristics that can enable NNES to become full-fledged contributors. Although temporal properties, pitch, and voice quality can contribute to non- nativeness, as stated by Munro et al. (2010), speech rate does not affect listening comprehension of unfamiliar English varieties (Mat- suura et al., 2014).

NEURAL BASES OF ACCENT PERCEPTION

Over the past decade, major advances in neurocognitive science have offered intriguing insights on foreign accent perception using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), electroencephalogram (EEG) and event-related potentials (ERP) research.

Several studies examined a bidirectional relationship between accent perception and context. According to Goslin, Duffy and Floc- cia (2012), when processing words spoken with a regional accent or foreign accent native speaking listeners rely primarily on contextual cues. In the same vein, Brunelliere and Soto- Faraco (2013) show a significant contextual influence during accented word recognition by native speakers. Together, these studies support the notion of contextual primacy over phonological accuracy in foreign speech comprehension.

More recent attention in brain research has focused on social categorization in accent attitude. Using British English accents and US English accents, Pietraszewski & Schwartz (2014) found that accent differences are the basis of spontaneous and implicit social categorization. This mechanism is not driven by acoustic- differences, low level sound, or differences in familiarity or ease-of-processing. Human mind contains systems for categorizing others according to their accents, which is likely to be an evolutionary vestige.

Similarly, an fMRI study results show a NESs preference for the native accent, presumably revealing people's sense of social belonging (Hernandez et al., 2019). In subsequent studies, it was also recognized that short exposure to a foreign accent results in native speakers' perception of foreign-accented speakers as less reliable than native speakers of equal social status (Foucart et al., 2019; Fou- cart & Hartsuiker, 2021). These accent-induced stereotypes are processed early giving rise to implicit bias (Pelissier & Ferragne, 2021). Collectively, these studies outline a critical role of unconscious social categorization in negative accent judgements. At the same time, other authors notice that exposure of native speakers to foreign accents leads to a better adaptability and accent bias reduction (Boduch-Grabka & Lev-Ari, 2021; Song & Iverson, 2018).

Conclusion

The aim of this review has been to investigate the role of accent bias in relation to educating a global citizen for sustainable future. To this end, literature review has been conducted, which allowed us to respond to the research question regarding the extent of the pernicious impact of accent bias on NNESs in ELF context and open up new insights into related pedagogical dimensions. The results of this study are based on a selection of articles collected from two databases available to the authors. We observed the key guidelines of Future education, research articles in relation to accent bias, the thematic areas from which they are studied, the accentual landscape of the reviewed research. The interdisciplinary character of the sample indicated the importance of results across different domains. Some studies on languages other than English were included to emphasize the ubiquitous character of accent prejudice.

Regarding the Research Question, results of the study showed that accent bias can be a silent, implicit, and unconscious threat to democratic education. Based on the dominant language ideology and group membership, unwarranted accent attitudes might jeopardize human rights and national identity. Multiple cases of low hirability, distrust, exclusion, avoidance, and career demotion toward NNES have been reported across different professional contexts in various countries. The fluid nature of prejudicial reactions complicates the development of valid and transparent mechanisms of its identification and reporting. Thus far, NNES are driven into language subordination and forced assimilation contributing to anxiety and depression. With the number of NNES exceeding a billion, we can notice a positive decentring trend, which is especially salient in once na- tivespeakerist Asian regions. However, despite declarative readiness of NNES to phonological divergences, the positions of ethnocentric ideology remain strong. As for emerging contexts of accent bias, digital technologies were found to be dramatically limited in accentual repertoire, making users fake identities.

The analysis of neurocognitive research provided a greater understanding of negative accent perception mechanism. Ever-increasing quantitative measurements show the crucial role of deeply entrenched social categorization and linguistic ethnocentrism as a precondition of bias.

Simultaneously, the review has indicated some opportunities for unbiased ELF interaction. These primarily include 1) large-scale evidence of accented speech intelligibility and comprehensibility to NNES, not including heavy foreign-accented speech; 2) findings about the primacy of contextual clues, accent familiarity and willingness of NES to adapt in multilingual encounters. Surprisingly, most pedagogical implications mentioned in the studies are limited to conventional instructions with a weak potential to educate unbiased ELF interactants. A common educational thread was raising awareness about the pernicious impact of accent prejudice and underlying mechanisms. The only truly inclusive initiative seems to be the successive attempts to involve NNES in ELF corpora and language proficiency tests development. Although raising awareness about language inequalities and responsibilities could be the first strategic pedagogical intervention, it necessarily needs to be followed by practice-based activities aimed at achieving dialogic empathy. The three aspects identified in the review (sufficient context, foreign accent familiarity, willingness to adapt) are seen as the pillars that teachers can rely on to design meaningful and rewarding tasks. Promoting this knowledge in NES and NNES language communities is expected to strongly contribute to global citizenship education.

Regarding the pedagogical insights, several courses of action to empower phonological instruction emerge from the review. In the perspective of future education, the model of curriculum design and learning progression should move away from a static to a dynamic, non-linear one, which is consistent to the current understanding of accent with its intrinsic features of instability and ambiguity highlighted by the context of interaction.

Methodologically, new learning paradigms are expected to embrace multi-centric attitudes, exposing learners to a kaleidoscope of accents across meaningful contexts to make them attuned to a diverse global soundscape. This can enable learners to transcend from the local to the global which is a critical aspect of global citizenship. Obviously, in this case, each student will have an individual trajectory to enrich his phonological experience. In the conditions of increased subjectification, reflexive learning practices would be one of the primary means of crystallizing new adequate accentual values. Most likely, assessment procedures have to become more variable and noncompetitive.

It is also highly suggested to promote bilingualism among NES communities and parents. As global citizenship can not to be achieved, empathy towards language inequality, including accent bias, cannot be informed, only experienced and reflected upon. Considering the well-known problems with bilingual education in Anglophone countries, this would be a daunting task, if at all feasible. In this case, spaces for multi-accented encounters with nondominant ideologies can be a viable solution.

The results of the review allow us to conclude that new educational agreements, based on the principles of democratic education, give

References a lot of hope to resolve the protracted crises associated with linguistic inequality, especially in such a highly variable aspect as foreign accent attitude. Taken together, these findings can be used to develop targeted pedagogical interventions aimed at holistic education of globally aware ELF speakers. Further research might explore the approaches to unlearning accent bias in specific contexts and the efficacy of phonological instruction in the new dimension at various levels.

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