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Government of the Russian Federation

National Research University Higher School of Economics

MASTER'S THESIS

China's policy toward students and scholars studying and working abroad 1978-2013 and formation of a new intellectual elite in China

Written by Bakhtina Victoria

Group MA-2

Supervisor Prof. Marion Wyse

Moscow, 2014

Table of contents

• Abstract
• Inroduction
• Chapter 1. Twists and turns of the Chinese state policy toward scholars and students living abroad since 1978
• 1.1 General Entry and Exit regulations
• 1.2 Development of the special policy toward overseas Chinese scholars
• 1.2.1 The first stage, 1978-1988
• 1.2.2 The second stage, 1989-1999
• 1.2.3 The third stage (1999-2013)
• Chapter 2. The mentality of overseas Chinese
• Chapter 3. Overseas Chinese sholars and students as a new socil elite group
• 3.1 High level of education
• 3.2 High working positions and salaries
• 3.3 Political representation
• 3.4 Social organizations
• 3.5 Territorial communities
• Conclusion
• Bibliography
• Appendix 1. Statistic data on students going abroad and returning to China
• Appendix 2. Reasons and destinations for studying abroad in China

Abstract

This paper analyzes the twists and turns of the PRC's governmental policies toward overseas Chinese students and scholars after the beginning of the economic reforms in 1978. It also examines the created mechanism of incorporating the returnees into the Chinese social system and considers the returned overseas Chinese as a new intellectual elite. The research has been written on the basis of Chinese main legislation acts while also including materials of the relevant government organizations, and it is based primarily on the concepts of the Systems and Elite theories.

Inroduction

The era of globalization can be characterized as a completely new system of economic relations. First of all, this new system is based on the strong interactions between countries. As a result of the transformation processes, that have taken place in many developed countries, a new unified international space has appeared. The most important reason of these processes is the increasing mobility of the three main factors of production - capital, labor and information. So in this case migrations of labor force have become one of the main factors of relations between countries and their future economic prosperity.

The "migration problem" has become one of the most burning issues of the contemporary China. The questions how to attract the most educated and talented overseas Chinese back to the motherland and how to use their experience for economic modernization of the country undoubtedly require the further investigation.

1) Topicality

After the end of the Cultural Revolution there was an acute shortage of qualified specialists in China. The educational system itself was extremely damaged. In this regard Chinese government under the personal leadership of Deng Xiaoping issued a number of regulations that stimulated students and young scholars to go abroad for study. Subsequently, this policy of "enrichment of brains abroad" was further developed. Young specialists and scholars that decided to come back to the motherland received privileges in employment, guaranteed high salaries and other opportunities to continue their research activities in China. Nowadays, scholars and scientists, who have experience of working in foreign universities and companies, occupy high positions in many government agencies, and many of them have become prominent political figures.

In time of global economic turmoil, China that has become the second or even the first largest economy in the world has to find new ways of further development.

There is still no strong domestic market in China. First of all, China's economy is an export-oriented economy. In other words, the Chinese industry directly depends on external markets and international economic conditions in general. Thus, the national economy is vulnerable to the global economic crises. In addition, China is on the verge of a crisis of overproduction. This crisis has already affected the steel industry According to experts, this situation was caused by excessive investment in the steel industry, made ??by the Chinese government in 2008 to overcome the international financial crisis. . At the same time, many experts note the shortcomings of Chinese planned economy [Wong, Liu, 2000; Wu, 2004]. Chinese leaders in an attempt to reduce the role of the market in the economy repeatedly committed tactical mistakes.

In this regard, the experience of scholars and scientists who are familiar with the economic and political systems of other countries becomes more and more important. Occupying high positions in government they can contribute much to the future prosperity of their motherland.

In Russia the "drain brain" problem is very urgent too. According to the statement of the chairman of the Labor union of the Russian Academy of Science Victor Kalinushkin, in last ten years from 500 to 800 thousand scientists left the country [Timofeeva, 2009: On-line]. In future Russian government can use the experience of the "eastern neighbor" to attract Russian scientists and artists back to the motherland.

2) Historiography

There are a lot of various strategies of migration policy that are accepted in many European and Asian countries, and sometimes they are totally different. For example, European countries are maneuvering between the necessity of additional human resources and attempts to preserve the traditional national structure. So, a big shortage of the manpower, on the one hand, and an influx of immigrants from Africa and Asia, on the other hand, generates special attention to the problem of migration in Europe.

The United State, which national policy is based on the recognition of the total equality, a long time ago began the struggle against the illegal immigration from Latin America. At the same time, the United States has become the symbol of the "American dream", which includes the idea of an upward social mobility achieved from the hard work. So the opportunity to get a "green card" agitates the souls of millions people all over the world.

Asian countries are also interested in the development of the general theory of migrations. After the Second World War many countries of this region in order to receive or return the national sovereignty began the policy of assimilation toward immigrants. Thus, many foreigners obtained citizenship or permanent resident status in these countries. Most of them were ethnic Chinese. Now Chinese diaspora controls about 70% of accumulated wealth in the South-East Asia [Larin, 2008]. Moreover, Chinese diaspora comes to only 6% of total population [Ibid]. Chinese business circles have created the largest holdings in Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia and the Philippines. This situation has become one of the main reasons of social tension in these countries. Therefore, the issue of the migration and national policy in this region is also very important.

The general strategies of migration policy in the XXI century are the subject of many scientific researches As an example: Brettell C., Hollifield J. F. Migration Theory: Talking Across Disciplines. Lnd., 2000; Aleinikoff T. A., Klusmeyer D. B. Citizenship Policies for an Age of Migration: The Comparative Citizenship Project. Carnegie Endowment, 2002; Jandl M. ed. Innovative Concepts for Alternative Migration Policies: Ten Innovative Approaches to the Challenges of Migration in the 21st Century. Amsterdam, 2007; Lewis R. D. Cultural Imperative: Global Trends in the 21^st Century. Boston, 2003; Marco G., Florence P. Dialogues on Migration Policy. Lanham, 2006.. In these works the theoretical issues and characteristics of contemporary migration processes as well as the methods of analysis of migration policy in different countries are given. Scholars provide a wide-ranging, interdisciplinary look at the world migration process, using statistic data.

The world community has always paid close attention to the "huaqiao issue". This fact can be explained by the internationalization of the world economy, started in the end of the XIX century. At that time many Chinese began to work on British gold mines in South Africa and Australia or on the construction of the railway system in the USA, especially, in California. Still a lot of Chinese people live in these regions.

After the First World War many European countries experienced a shortage of manpower. This predetermined the mass migration of Chinese workers to these countries. After the Second World War the national-liberation movements began in Africa and Asia, so the national minorities in these regions were oppressed. So the interest in the problems of migrants once again quickened. From the beginning of the 1980s Chinese economy has started to develop rapidly, and the role of "huaqiao" in this process has become obvious. So many researches have started to investigate the contribution of overseas Chinese to development of their motherland.

There are a big number of different works on the Chinese diaspora issues in general As an example: Kuhn P. A. Chinese Among Others: Emigration in Modern Times. Singapore, 2008; Ma J. C., Cartier C. L. The Chinese Diaspora: Space, Place, Mobility, and Identity. Lanham, 2003; Mallee H., Pieke F. N. Internal and International Migration; Chinese Perspectives. Lnd, 1999; Sun W. Media And the Chinese Diaspora: Community, Communication and Commerce. Lnd, 2006; Thun M. Beyond China: New Chinese Migration and the Global Expansion of China. Copenhagen, 2007.. The book "China and Overseas Chinese: a study of Peking changing policy, 1949-1979", written by the famous professor of East Asian studies Charles Patrick Fitzerald, is worthy of notice. It was written in the beginning of 1970s, when economic reforms have just started. In this regard, this book allows us to consider the initial stage of the Chinese emigration from the country, caused be the beginning of the Opening Up policy. Also there are many works on the problem of Chinese migrants in different countries, such as the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, countries of the South-East Asia.

In the Chinese scientific circles the attention of scholars has been focused on the compatriots living abroad since the end of the XIX century. However, during the Republican period and after the establishment of the PRC all investigations concerned the huaqiao issues were almost stopped, even despite the fact that the emigrants made a big contribution to all revolutionary activities and supported Chinese military campaigns during the Sino-Japanese war, primarily through financial investments. After the beginning of the Cultural Revolution it was dangerous even to mention the term huaqiao, because of ambiguous attitude of the Chinese leadership to the Chinese people, who were living in other countries, especially in the so-called "capitalist countries". However, after the beginning of the reform policy and till now the Chinese Diaspora is a permanent research subject in many scientific organizations, state and public structures (for example, Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council, Overseas Chinese Association, and so on). Many researches concerned the overseas Chinese issues are written by the Chinese scholars that have studying or working experience in other countries. For example, one of the prominent scholars specialized on the Chinese migrations laws Guofu Liu received PhD degree from Sydney University of Technology. His books "Chinese Immigration Law" and "The Right to Leave and Return and Chinese Migration Law" provide a comprehensive and up-to-date reference to Chinese legislation acts in this sphere.

Russian scholars focus their attention mainly on the role of the Chinese Diaspora in the economic development of China and the problem of migration of Chinese population on the territory of the Russian Far East Dyatlov V. Anti-Immigrant Attitudes in the Socio-Political Life of a Siberian City. Cambridge, 2000; Rusakov R. Dyhanie Drakonov [The breath of the Dragons]. Moscow, 1995; Lukin A. Medved Nabludaet za Drakonom [The Bear watches the Dragon]. Moscow, 2007.. Various works are devoted to the so-called "yellow peril problem" and a number of Russian scholars notes the outflow of the most able-bodied Russian population from the region and increasing flow of the Chinese migrants. According to these researches, if the migration continues, the number of the Chinese people at the Far East can reach such level that they would demand representation in the government. At the worst, the Russian government will be obliged to take into account the interests of Chinese population and China in general, and that means a partial loss of sovereignty.

At the same time Russian scholars are interested in adaptation of the Chinese experience in the sphere of migration policy and relations with the Diaspora. It is not a secret, that overseas Chinese that are living all over the world invest much in the economy of their motherland, promote Chinese goods, and share experience, new knowledge and other useful information with their compatriots. Such experience of cooperation between the government and the diaspora deserves further scientific development.

3) Research hypothesis and tasks

In this research it is hypothesized that the China's state policy toward students and scholars has promoted the formation of a new social elite group that can influence on the political decision-making process and determine the life of the whole society.

In this regard, the research objectives are as follows:

· To analyze the general exit and entrance regulations of the PRC;

· To distinguish the initial environment and the main causes of the establishment of the special policy toward Chinese students and scholars working and studying abroad;

· To explore the process of development and implementation of such policy in 1978-2013;

· To find out the particular outcomes and adequacy of the final results of the implemented policy;

· To outline the main differences (behavior, perception of the world, attitude to the current events, etc.) between overseas Chinese and their compatriots still living on the territory of the PRC;

· To analyze the mentality of the returned overseas Chinese;

· To explore the present social status of the returned students and scholars in accordance with the accepted definition of the term "social elite" and make a conclusion about the place of the returnees in the social structure of the PRC.

Thus, the object of this research is the concept of the social elite, and the subject is returned overseas Chinese.

4) Conceptual framework

Overseas Chinese: Chinese government has established a special law, which regulates the status of overseas Chinese and their relatives, - The Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of the Rights and Interests of Returned Overseas Chinese and the Family Members of Overseas Chinese. This law was adopted on the 31st of October, 2000 by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, and came into effect on the 1st of January, 2001. In this law a detailed classification of Chinese citizens, residing in countries other than China, is given.

First of all, these two categories of overseas Chinese should be mentioned:

- "Overseas Chinese" or "Huaqiao" denote Chinese citizens who have settled down abroad.

- "Returned overseas Chinese" or "Guigou huaqiao" denote overseas Chinese who have returned to the country and taken it as their place of permanent residence.

At the same time, this law contains status regulation of other groups of citizens, namely students who are studying abroad ("huaqiao xuesheng") and who have already returned to the homeland ("Guigou huaqiao xuesheng"), and relatives of overseas Chinese, who still live on the territory of the PRC ("qiaojuan").

In Chinese language there is also a slang term "sea turtle" ("haigui"), which means people that have returned to China after having studied abroad for several years. It is kind of metaphor as sea turtles also travel great distances overseas, but often come back to the motherland.

So there are special terms in Chinese language and in Chinese laws for these groups of citizens. It means that Chinese government pays special attention to the status and rights of these people.

Sometimes Russian and foreign scholars mention residents of Hong Kong, Taiwan and Macao, when they are talking about overseas Chinese, although the population of these territories in all official documents is called "compatriots" ("tongbao"). This paper does not examine the Beijing's policy toward inhabitants of these areas, as Hong Kong and Macao became the part of the PRC in 1997 and 1999. Taiwan is also recognized by the Chinese law as a part of the PRC.

Social elite: The most common definition of the term "social elite" is "a small group of people who control a disproportionate amount of wealth and political power" / "a minority of people that has the monopoly on power and decision-making". Among scholars that developed this understanding of the term "social elite" are Hungarian sociologist Karl Mannheim and American scholar Amitai Etzioni.

Gaetano Mosca, the first developed of the Elitism Theory, defined the term "social elite" as an organized minority (while the masses are an unorganized majority), which has intellectual, moral and material superiority that highly esteemed and influential.

Elmer Schattschneider, an American political scientist, supposed that in society that consisted of many competing interest groups the pressure system was biased in favor of "the most educated and highest-income members of society".

Another group of scholars such as Jose Ortega y Gasset and Vilfredo Pareto defined the term "social elite" as people who reached the highest success in their activities and had the intellectual and moral superiority over the mass as well as the highest sense of responsibility.

In particular, Vilfredo Pareto, one of the founders of the elite theory, supposed that the society in general was a pyramid, and elite was at the top of this pyramid. So, according to his theory, social elite was a leading social layer that guided the life of the whole society. The guarantee of the successful development of the society was regular rotation of the elite.

So relaying on these theories the term "social elite" can be defined as "a small well-organized group of most educated and highest-income people that influence much on the decision-making process and can determine the life of the whole society". This research is based on this understanding of the term "social elite".

Moreover, this research focuses generally on the representatives of the intellectual elite, thus refers to overseas Chinese scholars and future potential researchers that have certain scientific knowledge and experience of working in other countries.

5) Chronological framework

The main outflow of students and scholars from the territory of the PRC has begun since the establishment of the Opening Up policy in 1978. From that moment the Chinese leadership have made several attempts to strengthen relations with the Chinese Diaspora and designed a number of official programs aimed at attracting the most talented Chinese people back to the motherland. Prior to this, the attention of the Chinese government was focused mainly on the prevention of the social unrest among overseas Chinese, as well as on the search of investments and other economic benefits from the Diaspora.

6) Theoretical framework

The multi-disciplinary nature of this research has required adopting at least two broad theories - the Systems theory and the Elite theory.

This research is based mainly on the concepts of the Systems theory. The framework of the Systems theory based on the assumption that different parts of the system can be understood much better through the analysis of their relations with each other and with other systems. In such case, this theory is a very good tool to understand how systems behave, interact with the environment, and influence each other.

One of the proponents of the application of the Systems theory to the analysis of the public policy David Easton regards public policy as an output of the political system. He has also developed a model for the analysis of the policy-making process that consists of five main parts: inputs, conversion (or transformation of the inputs into outputs), outputs, feedback and environment [Easton, 1991]. Therefore, the systems model can help to explore the certain feedback (inputs, results, consequences) of the accepted policies toward overseas Chinese students and scholars and how the final results have been adopted in the present political system.

As far as the hypothesis of this research concerns the concept "social elite", the Elite theory is also applied in this work, particularly, the main definitions of the term "social elite". Besides other distinctive features of the concept of "elite", in this research the place of overseas Chinese in political system of the PRC is also under consideration.

7) Methodology

As far as each research strategy has its limitations, and it is hard to find an adequate single method for the complete analysis of the whole range of the collected data, so the only way out is to adopt a multi-disciplinary approach that combines different research methods.

On the first stage of investigation the Retrospective Approach was applied. This research method can help to show the factors related to the development of a particular outcome and cause-and-effect relations between these factors and the final results. Also this method is usually used after the outcomes have already occurred. If we talk about the policy toward the overseas Chinese students and scholars it is very important to analyze the reasons of implementation of such policy and the initial environment in the beginning of the investigations. It helps to understand the nature of this policy and make a conclusion about the adequacy of the final results.

Furthermore, on the second stage the method of Periodization was applied to define stages in the development process of the policy toward students and scholars. This method helps to determine periods of time with relatively stable characteristics for more convenience understanding of explored process.

The overall approach combined both qualitative and quantitative research methods. The majority of the studies concerned returned overseas Chinese and migration issues in general, including this thesis, are quantitative, as far as, for example, the number of the returnees in the beginning of the reforms is comparing with the final numbers of the returned migrants after the implementation of the certain policy. However, this thesis is also based on the qualitative methods, such as conceptualization, formalization and analytical induction, which help to describe, understand and explain certain empirical data.

William N. Dann in his book Public Policy Analysis introduced three methods of policy analysis, namely prospective, retrospective, and integrated analysis [Dunn, 1994]. The Retrospective Policy Analysis involves the production and transformation of information after policy actions have been taken. One of the sum-methods of this type of analysis that is called Problem Oriented Analysis seeks to describe mainly the causes and consequences of the policy, in this research the retrospective approach was applied as far as this research focused generally on the impacts of the existing repatriation policy in China.

8) Primary sources

The main sources of information for this research can be divided into three main groups: 1) legislation acts; 2) documents of government structures; 3) statistic data, presented by official agencies.

The main source of information for this research is various legislation acts concerned the overseas Chinese students and scholars that have been promulgated since 1978 by the Chinese governmental bodies (Ministry of Education, State Council, National People's Congress). The whole list of used legislation in chronological order can be found in bibliography.

Furthermore, one of the sources of information is the materials that are presented on the web-sites of governmental and non-governmental organizations involved in the overseas Chinese affairs in China and other countries.

The paper also analyzes statistic data introduced by the official governmental structures, such as the Ministry of Education and the Chinese Bureau of Statistics.

This thesis is mostly based on the materials of the Chinese government agencies and official statistic data. In many cases the official Chinese statistics are not completely reliable, as data presented by the Chinese governmental structures may be falsified for political purposes. However, even beside the hard evidence on data manipulation, the final results of the research seem to be legitimate. On the next stage of the research the available information is going to be verified through the "field investigations" and involvement of independent experts and the overseas Chinese scholars themselves.

9) Structure of the research

This research consists of introduction, three chapters and conclusion:

In the introduction are stated the topicality, research hypothesis and tasks, conceptual, theoretical and methodological frameworks of investigation.

The first chapter explores the process of development of the policy toward the Chinese students and scholars working and studying abroad from 1978 till 2013. In this part of the research are analyzed the main reasons of the implementation of such policy, as well as found out results and consequences on the each stage of policy's implementation.

In the second chapter are outlined the main differences in perception of the world between overseas Chinese and their compatriots in China, and made the conclusion about the mental potential of the returnees that can make them the main driving force of future development of the country.

Finally, the last chapter explores the current social status of the returned overseas Chinese students and scholars in accordance with the accepted definition of the term "social elite".

Chapter 1. Twists and turns of the Chinese state policy toward scholars and students living abroad since 1978

Since the early 1980s the level of external migration from the People's Republic of China (PRC) has increased much due to the significant domestic economic reforms and the vigorous involvement in globalization process. Contrary to the rather cool attitude of the Chinese authorities toward overseas Chinese before 1978, the Chinese state now is actively seeking to retain transnational ties to the millions of ethnic Chinese living in other countries.

This chapter explores the twists and turns of Chinese policies toward overseas Chinese scholars and students studying and living abroad in response to China's international position and novel internal political situation.

1.1 General Entry and Exit regulations

In 1966, by the General Assembly of the United Nations was adopted the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, in which the Right to leave and return (RLR) was affirmed as a fundamental human right. In other words, according to the RLR, anyone can freely leave any country and freely return to any country, including one's own. Despite that, each state has the sovereign right to regulate the RLR in accordance with its own laws [Quoted by Foldesi, 1993]. The Covenant was signed by the PRC only in 1998 (while the Republic of China signed it up in 1967), and it is still not ratified [International Services for Human Rights, 2013: On-line]. Although since 1978 and the beginning of the economic reforms the Chinese leadership has changed its attitude toward the RLR, the protection of the initial human right to move in China still remains on the lower level than in the rest of the world.

Nowadays the Chinese regulatory framework governing the RLR includes the Chinese migration law, the Constitution, and Chinese exit and entry administrative law The legislations of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR), Macao Special Administrative Region (MSAR) and Taiwan that differ from the migration laws on the Mainland of the PRC are not included here.. However, the Chinese government has not yet proclaimed any regulations that use the terms "immigration" or "emigration", as well as "migration" in general [Guofu, 2005].

The main law, which regulates the exit and entry of the Chinese citizens, The Law on the Control of the Exit and Entry of Citizens was adopted by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress in November 1985 The exit and entry of foreign citizens are governed by the parallel Law on the Administration of the Entry and Exit of Aliens that was also adopted in November 1985. In June 2012 the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress passed a unified exit and entry law that regulates the exit and entry of both Chinese citizens and foreigners.. According to this document, Chinese citizens may leave the Chinese territory whenever they want, except several cases. For example, the approval to leave the country will not be granted to persons whose exit from China will be harmful to state security or cause a major loss to national interests, defendants in criminal cases or criminal suspects confirmed by a public security department, people undergoing rehabilitation through labor, and so on [Ibid].

According to the law, five categories of overseas Chinese are eligible to apply for a permanent residence on the territory of the PRC: 1) widows and orphans of the Chinese citizens that can resolve their employment and housing needs only in China, but without the assistance of the State; 2) retired overseas Chinese that have pensions or property in China and can resolve their housing needs with the support of their relatives; 3) overseas Chinese that are persecuted in their residing country and thus cannot support themselves; 4) overseas Chinese that want to come back to the motherland for permanent residence within the short period of time after leaving the PRC and who can resolve their housing and employment needs without any help from the government; 5) overseas Chinese that have high level of education and whose specialization is demanding in China [Chinese Government's Official Web Portal: On-line].

The first four categories of overseas Chinese that apply for a permanent residence on the territory of the PRC need to provide many documents, including pension certificates, the evidence of the relationship between them and their sponsors in China, certificates of the property rights, and so on. Such rigid restrictions can be explained by the concerns of the Chinese government about the large population of the PRC that poses a challenge to economic development. Overseas Chinese that cannot prove that their specialization will meet the needs of the labor market might be prohibited from returning to the motherland. The only exception is the overseas Chinese professionals that are studying or working abroad. In later legislation acts their right to return was iteratively confirmed.

The new enter and exit regulations that were almost the revised edition of the legislations adopted in 1985 took effect in June 2013. These regulations are aimed to attract more foreign professionals, including those overseas Chinese that have already become citizens of another country The U.S. Embassy in Beijing in 1996 initiated the research concerned factors that could encourage "American students with Chinese origin" to go back to their motherland. The survey involved about 1,500 students and young scholars studying in different parts of the US. The researchers found out that softer policy toward immigrants was the most important reason for many young Chinese to return back to China. Other factors were market liberalization, a growing share of privatization and globalization [A Report from the U.S. Embassy, 1996: On-line]. .

According to the new exit and entry system, the new type of visa was established - "a talent introduction visa". The new R visa is now issued to foreign professionals, "who are either highly skilled or whose skill is urgently needed by China" [National People's Congress of the PRC: On-line]. Thus, with this policy the Chinese government has created a friendlier environment for foreign talents to work in China. However, the new regulation system does not mention, what kind of "talents" Chinese government is looking for. To apply for R-type visa those professionals should submit the appropriate supporting documents that verify their high qualification and meet the relevant requirements of the competent authorities of the Chinese government.

The new type of visa was also established for foreign citizens who apply for entry into China for family unification with Chinese relatives This type of visa is also issued for foreigners that apply for entry into China for family reunification with foreign citizens with permanent residency in China.. The "family reunion visa" is intended for a long term visits that last more than 180 days. These Q-type visas are created in response to requests of overseas Chinese to simplified exit and entry procedures. Thus, the L-type visas now are limited to tourism purposes only, and now they are issued for foreigners that are going to China for tourism and personnel affairs [Quoted by the Embassy of the PRC in the USA: On-line].

In such a way, Chinese government in all possible ways tries to make the entry/exit regulations more convenient for overseas Chinese that are intending to come back to the motherland. The changes, which were included into regulations last year, show that the Chinese leadership treats with respect to all requests of the overseas Chinese and their families. However, the rigid restrictions on the returning of unqualified overseas Chinese to the PRC demonstrate what exactly Chinese government is expecting from repatriation. The fact that only high-skilled workers can come back to China without any restrictions shows that China is interested in specialists from foreign countries.

1.2 Development of the special policy toward overseas Chinese scholars

The program of economic reforms that was started in 1978 by the Communist Party of China (CPC) led by Deng Xiaoping has resulted in enormous changes in Chinese society. Moreover, Deng Xiaoping made an unprecedented strategic decision to open up Chinese borders for students and young scientists who intended to study or work abroad. In such a way he planned to form new intellectual elite since the number of talented scholars in the country decreased much after the social upheaval of the Cultural Revolution. This decision was indeed very brave for that time: Mao Zedong never renounced the possibility of using the resources of the Chinese Diaspora for his own purposes, but relatives of the Chinese emigrants and returnees, especially from the so-called "capitalist" countries, were often suspected of being foreign spies [Thuno, 2001]. The attitude toward overseas Chinese before the beginning of the Opening up Policy in such a way was highly controversial, primarily due to the class affiliation of the Chinese people that were living in other countries.

Since that time many young Chinese people got the opportunity to go abroad for study, and there was so many students interested in such opportunity that the brain drain problem could become true as not all young people returned home after studying abroad.

According to the statistic data presented in the Chinese Educational Statistics Yearbook in 1997 only 32% of approximately 250,000 students who had gone abroad for study since 1978 returned to their motherland [China Social Statistical Yearbook, 2006: 17]. Perhaps, 250,000 people seem insignificant for such country as China with one of the biggest population in the world, however these young people to some extant can be regarded as bearers of new culture and new experience that are so necessary for China in the years of reforms.

Moreover, in the beginning of the Opening Up policy only the most talented young people could get a scholarship for studying abroad [For more information, please, see below], and after the Cultural Revolution not many people in China could pay a quite big amount of money for a foreign education of their children. So the question how to attract the most talented young people back to the motherland was very significant since the beginning of the reform era in China.

1.2.1 The first stage, 1978-1988

Some steps in this direction were made by the Chinese leadership just after the beginning of the economic reforms. Particular attention was paid to students and young scholars that were studying and working abroad at that time.

To support the implementation of the new projects in 1979 a special administrative unit was established, namely The Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council of the PRC Its forerunner, the Committee of Overseas Chinese Affairs, established in 1949 was abolished in 1970. . This unit is still responsible for communication with the overseas Chinese residing abroad, and its main aim is to "protect the legitimate rights and interests of the overseas Chinese" [Chinese Government's Official Web Portal: On-line]. Also the Office together with the China Scholarship Council is developing special scholarships and grants for the most talented Chinese scholars and students that are intending to study or working abroad.

In 1979 a special legislation was issued - Provisional Regulations on the Affairs of Chinese Students Studying Abroad. These regulations were jointly adopted by the Ministry of Education From 1985 till 1998 the Ministry of Education was officially called the State Education Commission. However, here the term "Ministry of Education" is used for all periods for the convenience of the readers., the State Science and Technology Commission and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The year after, the main statements of this document were confirmed iteratively in the Report on the Management of the Overseas Chinese Students Affairs that was forwarded by the State Council to the Ministry of Education, Culture and Foreign Affairs.

The main goal of the new acts was to encourage talented student to study abroad as well as to facilitate the procedure of going through all necessary formalities. Moreover, the number of governmental scholarships and grants designed for student and scholars increased much.

These documents were created with the assistance of Deng Xiaoping who truly believed that China should at the shortest possible time catch up to the West in the field of science and technology. His wish became the lasting basis for the future policy toward students and scholars studying and working abroad.

Deng Xiaoping in his youth spent some time in France, and, perhaps, his own experience let him realize how important was the role of young people studying abroad for further development of the country. He was personally involved in the process of the implementation of the new policy and under his leadership the number of young people, who received the opportunity to study abroad, increased significantly. Only during 1979 about 1,750 students went to foreign countries for study, and this number exceeded the total figure for previous five years [Li, 2010: 276].

Over the next few years since 1978 till 1983 the Chinese Ministry of Education with the support of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs signed up several agreements concerning educational exchanges with the U.S., Great Britain, France, Germany, Japan and many other countries all over the world [Ibid]. The participation of the officials from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs indicates that these agreements were important for Chinese leadership. These agreements allowed an increasing number of Chinese students to study in prestigious foreign universities.

The vast majority of the total number of Chinese students studying abroad at that time was sponsored by the government and state companies that had an opportunity to send the most talented workers to foreign countries for training. According to the statistic data presented in the Educational Statistics Yearbook of China in 1998 from 1978 to 1987 only 20% of the total number of overseas Chinese students was studying abroad at their own expense [China Social Statistical Yearbook, 2006: 17].

In 1980 the Working Conference on the Affairs of Students Studying Abroad was held with the assistance of the officials from the Ministries of Education, Finance, Culture, Foreign Affairs, Science and Technology Cadre Bureau of the State Council and the Chinese Academy of Science. The resolution of this conference was that "the knowledge and the experience of the Chinese students studying abroad had crucial importance for the realization of the Four Modernization Policy" [Quoted by Zhongguo Zhigongdang: On-line].

In this regard next year was announced that self-funded students are equalized in rights with the students that are studying abroad at public expense. These regulations were reflected in two documents published that year: Instruction for Students that Go Abroad for Study at their own Expense and Interim Regulations for Students that Go Abroad for Study at their own Expense. Later these two documents were revised and compiled in a new document The Interim Provisions of the State Council of the PRC about Self-funded Students Studying Abroad that was published in 1984.

In this document several main theses were stated: 1) after graduation all students could return to China and get working positions from the local authorities (depending on where they were living, working or studying before going abroad) according to their achievements; 2) self-funded students had equal rights with state-funded students and could get same working places and salaries; 3) self-funded students that did not have degree after studying abroad could get working position from the local authorities according to their skills and knowledge. Thus, the Chinese government intended to stimulate students that had an opportunity to study abroad at their own expense. This fact demonstrated how important were young people that had experience of studying abroad for Chinese leadership at that time.

In December 1986 a new important document was developed by the Ministry of Education - Several Provision Regulations of the State Education Comission for Personnel Working Abroad. In this document several main thesis were stated: 1) new principles of studying abroad were announced: state support for going abroad, guarantee of education high quality, consistency between study and practice; 2) moreover, Chinese government took an obligation to make the best conditions of living and working in China for those students that would come back to the motherland after graduation; 3) those self-funded students that would receive academic awards after the graduation could expect that part of their tuition fees would be returned to them by the employer.

At the same time this act was accompanied by the special list of standards for those who could undergo training in foreign universities at public expense. These standards can be divided in two main groups: political and professional. Only young people that are loyal to Chinese government with high academic achievements could get a scholarship from the government. Other important factors are good mental and physical health and knowing of foreign languages. In other words, according to this document only young and most talented people could go abroad for study at public expense, so the brain drain problem was a real burning issue for that time.

On the initial stage of the development of the policy toward students and scientists studying and working abroad were made several main steps. First of all, on this stage Chinese government led by Deng Xiaoping showed a big interest in students and scientists living in foreign countries. Furthermore, because of the active work of the Ministry of Education with the support of the Ministry of the Foreign Affairs the number of Chinese students going abroad increased much during the decade from 1978 till 1988. However, not many students decided to come back to China, primarily because of the undeveloped system of social welfare. Especially it concerned self-funded students: according to statistic data the return rate among them was less than 4% from 1978 till 1998 [See App. 1, Picture 1], even despite the fact that self-funded students had equal rights with state-funded students. On the next stage of the development of the policy toward students and scholars living abroad the Chinese leadership was forced to find new ways to attract intellectuals back to the motherland.

1.2.2 The second stage, 1989-1999

Since the early 1990s with the development of Chinese economy the number of students studying abroad on their own expense has increased several times. More and more people began to receive steady incomes that let them pay the tuition fees for their children studying in foreign countries. Furthermore, with the implementation of a new Exit-Entrance system in 1985 disappeared many formalities that previously prevented some students to go abroad.

However, after the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 the number of young people wishing to come back to China after graduation decreased sharply [See App. 1, Picture 1]. Moreover, the attitude of the Chinese government toward Overseas Chinese changed much: the mass protests of the Chinese citizens abroad caused a negative reaction of the Chinese leadership.

In 1992 on the Changchun International Film Festival the Vice-Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress Litie Ying announced three main principles of a new policy toward students and scholars studying and working abroad: "zhichi liuxue, guli huiguo, laiqu ziyou" (comprehensive support for students studying abroad, encouragement their return to China, protection of the right to leave and return). These principles were ratified on the 3rd Plenary Session of the 14th CPC Central Committee [Wang, 2005].

Moreover, this year the State Council of the PRC issued the so-called Notice on Issues Related to Students Studying Abroad. It was a kind of appeal to all Chinese citizens residing abroad: they were called up to come back to China immediately. In their turn Chinese officials promised to shut their eyes to the activities of individual students during the unrest of 1989 if they ceased to engage in any anti-government organizations.

Officials on all levels of government were instructed to provide any possible help to students that intended to come back to the motherland after studying abroad. Furthermore, Chinese embassies in all countries pledged to protect the rights of Chinese students in other countries. Officials working in the Chinese embassies were instructed to conduct propaganda work among students and provide them the latest information about the achievements of the Chinese leadership.

Moreover, in the early 1990s the Chinese leadership supported the establishment of local Chinese schools depending on the country and the number of residing ethnic Chinese. Special teaching materials were elaborated, and about 150 teachers were sent from the PRC to teach Chinese in other countries. Also several thousand teachers that were living abroad received Chinese teaching training in China [Thuno, 2001: 924].

In 1993 the State Council of the PRC with the support of the Central Committee of the CPC made an official decision to support the return of Chinese students and scholars after a full course of study abroad back to the motherland. In this regard was prepared a set of documents proposing high salaries for specialists who had studied in foreign universities. For realization of this program were created several special organizations within the Ministry of Education, the State Science and Technology Commission and the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council and many nongovernmental organizations that controlled students' employment issues [Ibid].

In 1994 in Nanjing was created the first Science and Technology Park for overseas Chinese students that decided to return to the motherland [Barabantseva, 2005]. The park consolidated local research institutes, and in such a way was created a financial and scientific platform to support the start-ups of the returnees. On the territory of the park returnees could find whatever they needed - not only low rent and tax benefits offering by almost all science parks in China, but also special features that addressed the needs of returnees, such as accommodation and bilingual schools for their children. Since 1994 several tens of such parks have been founded specifically for returnees. According to the statistic data, in 2003 there were 110 Overseas Students Parks, and now the number of industrial parks of this kind is more than 160 with about 8,000 business that provide working positions for returning students [Walcott, 2003: 78].