Translation of neologisms

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Plan

Chapter 1. Translation

1.1 Translation theory

1.2 Main types of translation

1.3 Problems of oral translation

Chapter 2. Neologisms and their translation into the Russian language

2.1 The definition of neologism

2.2 Types of neologisms

2.3 Word building models of coinage neologisms

Conclusion

Bibliography

translation oral russian neologism

Chapter 1. Translation

1.1 Translation theory

Translation is a means of interlingual communication. The translator makes possible an exchange of information between the users of different languages by producing in the target language (TL or the translating language) a text which has an identical communicative value with the source (or original) text (ST).

As a kind of practical activities translation (or the practice of translation) is a set of actions performed by the translator while rendering ST into another language. These actions are largely intuitive and the best results are naturally achieved by translators who are best suited for the job, who are well-trained or have a special aptitude, a talent for it. Masterpieces in translation are created by the past masters of the art, true artists in their profession. At its best translation is an art, a creation of a talented, high-skilled professional.

The theory of translation provides the translator with the appropriate tools of analysis and synthesis, makes him aware of what he is to look for in the original text, what type of information he must convey in TT and how he should act to achieve his goal. In the final analysis, however, his trade remains an art. For science gives the translator the tools, but it takes brains, intuition and talent to handle the tools with great proficiency. Translation is a complicated phenomenon involving linguistic, psychological, cultural, literary, ergonomical and other factors.

The core of the translation theory is the general theory of translation which is concerned with the fundamental aspects of translation inherent in the nature of bilingual communication and therefore common to all translation events, irrespective of what languages are involved or what kind of text and under what circumstances was translated. Basically, replacement of ST by TT of the same communicative value is possible because both texts are produced in human speech governed by the same rules and implying the same relationships between language, reality and the human mind. All languages are means of communication, each language is used to externalize and shape human thinking, all language units are meaningful entities related to non-linguistic realities, all speech units convey information to the communicants. In any language communication is made possible through a complicated logical interpretation by the users of the speech units, involving an assessment of the meaning of the language signs against the information derived from the contextual situation, general knowledge, previous experience, various associations and other factors. The general theory of translation deals, so to speak, with translation universals and is the basis for all other theoretical study in this area, since it describes what translation is and what makes it possible.

The general theory of translation describes the basic principles which bold good for each and every translation event. In each particular case, however, the translating process is influenced both by the common basic factors and by a number of specific variables which stem from the actual conditions and modes of the translator's work: the type of original texts he has to cope with, the form in which ST is presented to him and the form in which he is supposed to submit his translation, the specific requirements he may be called upon to meet in his work, etc.

Contemporary translation activities are characterized by a great variety of types, forms and levels of responsibility. The translator has to deal with works of the great authors of the past and of the leading authors of today, with intricacies of science fiction and the accepted stereotypes of detective stories. He must be able to cope with the elegancy of expression of the best masters of literary style and with the tricks and formalistic experiments of modern avant-gardists. The translator has to preserve and fit into a different linguistic and social context a gamut of shades of meaning and stylistic nuances expressed in the original text by a great variety of language devices: neutral and emotional words, archaic words and new coinages, metaphors and similes, foreign borrowings, dialectal, jargon and slang expressions, stilted phrases and obscenities, proverbs and quotations, illiterate or inaccurate speech, and so on and so forth.

The original text may deal with any subject from general philosophical principles or postulates to minute technicalities in some obscure field of human endeavour. The translator has to tackle complicated specialized descriptions and reports on new discoveries in science or technology for which appropriate terms have not yet been invented. His duty is to translate diplomatic representations and policy statements, scientific dissertations and brilliant satires, maintenance instructions and after-dinner speeches, etc.

Translating a play the translator must bear in mind the requirements of theatrical presentation, and dubbing a film he must see to it that his translation fits the movement of the speakers' lips. The translator may be called upon to make his translation in the shortest possible time, while taking a meal or against the background noise of loud voices or rattling type-writers. In simultaneous interpretation the translator is expected to keep pace with the fastest speakers, to understand all kinds of foreign accents and defective pronunciation, to guess what the speaker meant to say but failed to express due to his inadequate proficiency in the language he speaks.

In consecutive interpretation he is expected to listen to long speeches, taking the necessary notes, and then to produce his translation in full or compressed form, giving all the details or only the main ideas. In some cases the users will be satisfied even with the most general idea of the meaning of the original, in other cases the translator may be taken to task for the slightest omission or minor error./14/

In mid-fifties of the last century conference interpreter was still in its infancy with the first simultaneous interpretation having been used after World War II at the Nuremburg Trials (English, French, Russian and German).

In the interwar years consecutive interpretation alone was provided at international gatherings, such as at meetings of the League of Nations in Geneva where English and French were used.

The first interpreters were not trained but entered the profession on the strength of their mastery of languages, prodigious memory, and their impressively broad cultural background. Some of the legendary figures of interpreting include Jean Herbert, Andre Kaminker and Prince Constantin Andronikof, who was personal interpreter to General de Gaulle and one of the founders of AIIC, which was established in 1953.

With the setting up of international and European organizations (United Nations - 1945, Council of Europe - 1949, European Community - 1957) there was a growing need for a much larger number of trained professionals. To meet this continuing challenge, the course has expanded and now encompasses the languages of the European Union and the UN family.

The situation in the early 20^th century was totally different from what is known now as conference interpreting - a highly professional field requiring advanced learning and special training. Conference interpreting actually started during World War I, and until then all international meetings of any importance had been held in French for that was language of the 19^th century diplomacy.

After the Armistice had been signed on November 11^th, 1918, interpreters were invited to work for the Armistice Commissions and later at the Conference on the Preliminaries of Peace. This was the period when conference interpreting techniques to be developed. According to the conference interpreter and author Jean Herbert, they interpreted in consecutive in teams of two, each into his mother tongue.

So conference interpreting was becoming a profession, assuming certain standards in the period between the two World Wars. It started as a non-professional skill, developed from sentence-by-sentence interpreting into consecutive proper and involved special techniques of taking notes as well as many others.

This interpreting process required special qualities on top of an excellent command of two languages, among others tact and diplomacy; above average physical endurance and good "nerves".

All this applies to both consecutive and simultaneous interpreting and interpreters.

Simultaneous interpreting came into life much later although first attempts to initiate this new conference interpreting procedure were occasionally made at multilingual gathering in the late twenties and the early thirties. In the USSR simultaneous interpreting was first introduced at the VI Congress of the Communist International in 1928 with interpreters sitting in the front row of the conference hall trying hard to catch the words of speakers, coming from the rostrum, and taking into heavy microphones hanging on strings of their necks. Isolated booths for interpreters started to be used five years later, in 1933. Attempts to introduce simultaneous interpreting in the International Labour Organisation were made a few years before the Second World War. Interpreters there were seated in somewhat like an orchestra pit just below the rostrum. They had no earphone to facilitate listening and had to do their best to understand what came over the loudspeakers. They whispered their translations into a sort of box called a Hushaphone.

With the establishment of the United Nations Organisation which opened up an era of multilateral diplomacy, and the development of multilateral economic relations a new era for conference interpreting also began. Simultaneous interpreting gained ground, particularly as Russian, Spanish and Chinese languages were introduced as UN working languages./28/

1.2 Main types of translation

Though the basic characteristics of translation can be observed in all translation events, different types of translation can be singled out depending on the predominant communicative function of the source text or the form of speech involved in the translation process. Thus we can distinguish between literary and informative translation, on the one hand, and between written and oral translation (or interpretation), on the other hand.

Informative translation is rendering into the target language non-literary texts, the main purpose of which is to convey a certain amount of ideas, to inform the reader. However, if the source text is of some length, its translation can be listed as literary or informative only as an approximation. Literary works are known to fall into a number of genres. Literary translations may be subdivided in the same way, as each genre calls for a specific arrangement and makes use of specific artistic means to impress the reader. Translators of prose, poetry or plays have their own problems. Each of these forms of literary activities comprises a number of subgenres and the translator may specialize in one or some of them in accordance with his talents and experience.

A number of subdivisions can be also suggested for informative translations, though the principles of classification here are somewhat different. Here we may single out translations of scientific and technical texts, of newspaper materials, of official papers and some other types of texts such as public speeches, political and propaganda materials, advertisements, etc., which are, so to speak, intermediate, in that there is a certain balance between the expressive and referential functions, between reasoning and emotional appeal.

As the names suggest, in written translation the source text is in written form, as is the target text. In oral translation or interpretation the interpreter listens to the oral presentation of the original and translates it as an oral message in TL. As a result, in the first case the Receptor of the translation can read it while in the second case he hears it.

There are also some intermediate types. The interpreter rendering his translation by word of mouth may have the text of the original in front of him and translate it "at sight". A written translation can be made of the original recorded on the magnetic tape that can be replayed as many times as is necessary for the translator to grasp the original meaning. The translator can dictate his "at sight" translation of a written text to the typist or a short-hand writer with TR getting the translation in written form.

These are all, however, modifications of the two main types of translation. The line of demarcation between written and oral translation is drawn not only because of their forms but also because of the sets of conditions in which the process takes place. The first is continuous, the other momentary. In written translation the original can be read and re-read as many times as the translator may need or like. The same goes for the final product. The translator can re-read his translation, compare it to the original, make the necessary corrections or start his work all over again. He can come back to the preceding part of the original or get the information he needs from the subsequent messages. These are most favourable conditions and here we can expect the best performance and the highest level of equivalence. That is why in theoretical discussions we have usually examples from written translations where the translating process can be observed in all its aspects.

The conditions of oral translation impose a number of important restrictions on the translator's performance. Here the interpreter receives a fragment of the original only once and for a short period of time. His translation is also a one-time act with no possibility of any return to the original or any subsequent corrections. This creates additional problems and the users have sometimes to be content with a lower level of equivalence.

There are two main kinds of oral translation -- consecutive and simultaneous. Interpreting requirements - depending on the type of interpreting one is engaged in - can range from simple, general conversation, to highly technical exposes and discussions. In consecutive translation the translating starts after the original speech or some part of it has been completed. Here the interpreter's strategy and the final results depend, to a great extent, on the length of the segment to be translated. If the segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closely follows the original speech. As often as not, however, the interpreter is expected to translate a long speech which has lasted for scores of minutes or even longer. In this case he has to remember a great number of messages and keep them in mind until he begins his translation. To make this possible the interpreter has to take notes of the original messages, various systems of notation having been suggested for the purpose. The study of, and practice in, such notation is the integral part of the interpreter's training as are special exercises to develop his memory.

Sometimes the interpreter is set a time limit to give his rendering, which means that he will have to reduce his translation considerably, selecting and reproducing the most important parts of the original and dispensing with the rest. This implies the ability to make a judgement on the relative value of various messages and to generalize or compress the received information. The interpreter must obviously be a good and quickwitted thinker.

In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his translation while the speaker is uttering the original message. This can be achieved with a special radio or telephone-type equipment. The interpreter receives the original speech through his earphones and simultaneously talks into the microphone which transmits his translation to the listeners. This type of translation involves a number of psycholinguistic problems, both of theoretical and practical nature. /14/

This is a highly specialized form of interpreting, which requires a special aptitude. The interpreter has to be able to listen to the speaker and repeat the same words in a different language almost at the same time. This takes a great deal of training and experience, and is paid at a higher rate than consecutive.

Simultaneous interpretation may be required for such things as business or professional conferences, training seminars, or presentations. A simultaneous interpretation longer than two hours requires at least two interpreters to allow for rest periods./22/

1.3 Problems of oral translation

Consecutive translation is not full by definition. Firstly, even unique memory of some legendary interpreters is hardly able to keep all the details of a long speech, let alone the memory of mere mortals. Secondly, the consecutive translation is fulfilled basically denotatively, i.e. this is not a word-for-word translation of source text but its more or less free interpretation. This either suggests differences and incompleteness.

In consecutive translation the interpreter should rely on as much as possible set of wide and universal equivalents, on the context and on maximally full common and special knowledge base. Context plays the most important role in consecutive translation in contrast to simultaneous translation where the wide context practically absent and the choice of equivalents given by the dictionary is to be made according to the situation and background knowledge. /18/

Professional simultaneous translation is the type of oral translation at international conferences which is realized at the same time with the perception of the message by ear given instantaneously at the source language. The interpreter is at the booth which isolates him from the audience. During the simultaneous translation the information of a strictly limited volume is being processed in the extreme conditions at any space of time.

The extreme conditions of professional simultaneous translation sometimes lead to the statement of a question about appearing the condition of stress at the simultaneous interpreter. /25/

Simultaneous translation is always connected with huge psychological works and often with stress and it is quite natural, because to listen and to speak simultaneously is impossible for a usual man it is a psychological anomaly. It is impossible to translate simultaneously without special equipment. The translator needs earphones, a special booth and most of all he needs skills and translation devices. During the translation the reporter speaks or reads his text to the microphone in one language and the interpreter hears it from the ear-phones and translates it into another language simultaneously with the speaker. When the interpreter speaks to his microphone the audience, which hears his translation from the ear-phones, must gain an impression that the speaker reporter speaks in their language.

The specialists pay special attention to the following factors which determine the difficulty of simultaneous translation:

- Psychophysiological discomfort caused by the necessity to listen and to speak simultaneously;

- Psychophysiological strain connected with irreversibility of that the reporter has said into the microphone. The reporter won't be stopped and asked to repeat;

- Psychological strain connected with big audience and irreversibility of the translation. It is impossible to excuse and to correct;

- Psychophysiological strain caused by quick speech. The simultaneous interpreter must always speak quickly without pauses otherwise he will be left behind. But the pauses in speech bring not only semantic but psychophysiological work: to take breath, to collect one's thoughts.

- Difficult linguistic task of tying up the utterances in the languages which have different structure during the simultaneous translation, when the context is extremely limited and there is lack of time for translation;

- A difficult linguistic task of speech compression which helps to compensate the translation into the language which has long words and verbose rhetoric.

These factors work in the ideal case when the reporter speaks in a usual speed in a clear literal language, when his pronunciation is standard and he understands that he is being translated and he is interested in that the audience to understand him. But this happens rarely.

The simultaneous interpreter must always be ready morally and professionally that

the reporter will speak very fast or will read the text of his speech;

the reporter's pronunciation will be indistinct or nonstandard;

the reporter will use nonstandard abbreviations in his speech, which weren't entered beforehand, or professional jargon words or expressions.

All these difficulties may undoubtedly present at consecutive translation but there always exist a feed-back with the reporter. The interpreter may ask again, ask to repeat and there is always a contact of the interpreter with the audience where is surely someone who knows the language and subject of the speech and he will always prompt and correct benevolently, as a rule, if the translation is well in general./18/

While listening to the speaker the interpreter takes notes of the message he or she receives, while the utterance is being received. It means that perception and comprehension are concurrant with note-taking.

The interpreter's notes are an ideographic system of encoding the message. They are word- and symbol-based, their syntax is simple, their word order is direct and grammatical functions are expressed by fixed positions of the elements of the utterance, while positions themselves are vertically organized.

This brief description of the system of interpreter's notes makes one realize that to take notes one has to translate the original utterance into another code. This code is in fact very close to what has been previously described as the internal semantic code of the Recipient. And the fact that the interpreter's notes are something only the interpreter who has made them can read, or decode, proves the point.

So in order to be able to listen, comprehend and take down a processed and transformed version of the original utterance the interpreter has to run ahead of the utterance being received and anticipate its morpho-phonemic, syntactical and semantic structure.

If we now take our model of the interpretation process we shall see that it represents a two-phase process of consecutive interpreting in which the phases are separated from each other, the first phase being completed when the semantic representation is achieved in the form of notes, and the second phase being started when this semantic representation is utilized for programming and producing the message in the TL (target language).

No such border-line can be drawn for simultaneous interpreting. If we attempt a graphic representation of the process of simultaneous interpreting for one utterance, we shall see that the processes of speech perception and speech generation concur and run parallel to each other. The language in which an interpreter has to take notes is the source language. Note-taking is a help for short-term memory. It reflects basic thoughts of the source text. The system of note-taking is based at widely spread abbreviations and individual own symbols.

Symbols and abbreviations used in note-taking must meet the following requirements:

- they should be understandable, easy to write and to decode;

- to be universal and easy to remember;

- they should mean definite notion, symbol, sense, which appears clearly and monosemantically both in linguistic and extra linguistic context;

- to be recognizable at the given moment of speaking and translating.

In order to read and interpret the notes easily you should place them downward in diagonal way. The first level is subject group, the second level is predicative, the third level is Direct Object and the fourth level is Indirect Object.

Model:

Some examples of the symbols used in the note-taking:

MP - Member of Parliament

VIP - Very Important Person

G-7 - Group of seven

Common used abbreviations:

CIS - СНГ (Commonwealth of Independent States)

EU - European Union

RF - Russian Federation

US - United States

UK - United Kingdom

UN - ООН (United Nations Organization)

MOW - Moscow

NY - New York

LON - London

CEO - chief executive officer

JV - joint venture

FTZ - Free trade zone

P - President

VP - Vice President

I/V - investment

^I - growth of inflation

E - employment

E - unemployment

D/B - budget deficit

Usage of contracted words:

pro - professional

demo - demonstration

info - information

Letter precision information such as proper names and geographical names is written only by means of consonants. Numeral precision information like days of a week and months is written by numbers.

e.g. - Friday, 11 - November

dates: current decade - 2008 = `8

current century - 1995 = .95

current millennium - 1812 = .812

numbers from 1100 to 10000 is to be written by hundreds

e.g. 17H = 1700

17t = 17 thousand

17m = 17 million

17b = 17 billion

17tr = 17 trillion

Marking of semantic ties between the symbols is the most important and rather difficult point. Especially when the interpreter is voicing his notation. Speaking is marked with : after the subject group; emphasis is marked with :! (claimed, referred, accused, offered). The symbol (:) means press-conference, press-release, statement.

approval - OK

disapproval - OK

plural - sign of square; e.g. MP² = Members of Parliament

m² = millions

repeat = R with an arrow with the place which is repeated

> - more, < - less

^ - growth, rise; increase; improvement; future

v - decrease, fall, degradation; past

? - state, country

Expression of modality:

possibility: m - may; m? - might

c - can; c? - could

doubt: ? or ?!

necessity: d (must, to be to, should) - from debere (lat.)

Comparative and Superlative degrees of Adjectives: signs of square and cube

e.g. big² - bigger, big³ - the biggest

"Speaking" symbols:

_ - congress, meeting

X - war, conflict

This approach shouldn't be accepted as a third language. It should be created by imagination of an interpreter. /28/

During the translation the simultaneous interpreter chooses equivalents on basis of:

- common linguistic knowledge;

- microcontext;

- common background information;

- special information.

Here is the example of choosing the equivalents in translating the fragment of the report "Patents and other industrial property titles and their licensing."

"When technology is to be used in cooperation with a third party, whether in the form of a license, as it is the main aspect of this paper, or by merger or by taking capital investment of a third party into the company owning the technology, it is of tremendous importance to determine the value of patents and other intangible assets, in the following designated as intellectual property rights (IPR), belonging to the respective entity".

Simultaneous translation of the fragment:

"Когда технология применяется совместно с третьей стороной, либо в форме лицензии, как в этом докладе, либо путем слияния или же вложения капитала третьей стороны в фирму, владеющую технологией, чрезвычайно важно определить стоимость патентов и прочих нематериальных активов, что в дальнейшем мы будем называть Правами на интеллектуальную собственность, принадлежащими данному субъекту".

At first we should note that the interpreter didn't choose the equivalents during the translation as he had chosen and remembered them earlier. These terms are "merger" - "слияние", "intangible assets" - "нематериальные активы", "entity" - "субъект (права)".

At the same time there was a different interpretation and exchanging of some usual equivalents with those which do structurally and stylistically. They are "capital investment" - "инвестиция" was exchanged for "вложение капитала", "in cooperation" - "в сотрудничестве" was exchanged for "совместно"./18/

There are main devices which were formed during the long development of oral translation and they are used in the work of simultaneous interpreter. They are speech compression, omission and addition of the material. During the oral translation from Russian into English the compression is required when there are repetitions, words of little importance or when the speaker is too fast. In order not to be behind the speaker and not to miss important segments of his speech the interpreter has to choose between lexical and syntactical equivalents which must be compressed. e.g. "На международном, национальном и местном уровнях" can be translated as "on all levels" or "on several levels".

The ability to abridge and to condense oral speech is one of the most important abilities in the art of simultaneous translation. But, in order not to misrepresent the speaker's idea using short words or omitting unnecessary words he is forced to decide each time what is superfluous and should be omitted.

e.g. "Госсекретарь предложил созвать конференцию"

"The secretary of state proposed a conference"

"Просмотр состоится 22 сентября"

"The showing is on September 22"

"Это было опубликовано в газете Нью-Йорк Таймс"

"This appeared in the New York Times"

Though during the translation from Russian into English the text is usually becomes shorter sometimes there are the opposite cases. It happens when the rules of English grammar and the structure of the language require addition of the article or when the complex type of tense is used. e.g. "We shall have been doing this"

The time is spending on the translation increases if the interpreter has to define more precisely or explain Russian realias.

e.g. "Днем они пошли с друзьями в ЗАГС, а вечером свадьбу справили в ресторане "Арбат""

"In the afternoon they went to sign the marriage registry, and in the evening they had a reception in the Arbat"

Metonymy and synecdoche, as the devices of simultaneous translation, are used for the specification of common idea and the generalization of typical or concrete occurrence. When there is no exact equivalent for a definite Russian notion or when the interpreter just didn't here some word he is often saved from failure by the substitution of the general occurrence by the concrete one and vice versa.

e.g. "зелень" (Нужно добавить зелень в суп) - "parsley and other herbs"

If the interpreter suddenly forgets the word or the idiom he can use some other synonym even less exact.

e.g. "семь пядей во лбу" - (as wise as Solomon) - "He paid him a compliment"

Antonymous inversion is another very useful device which helps to avoid a word-for-word translation when it is necessary. The possibilities of antonymous usage are very wide but they are not boundless. Context always plays a decisive role especially by the inversion of idiomatic expression.

e.g. "не иметь себе равных" - "to be second to none"

"не придавать значения" - "to overlook"

Grammatical inversion:

"И в промышленной, и в военном отношении, эти планы нашей страны…"

"Militarily and industrially, our country's plans…"

"Их было больше"

"They prevailed"

Syntactical inversion:

"Они завоевали эту территорию"

"This territory fell to them"

The search of semantic equivalents and avoidance of a word-for-word translation are two the most important way of translation into idiomatic English.

e.g. "глубоко убеждены" - "firmly convinced"

"идти к кому-то на встречу" - "to accommodate someone"

"случайные люди в политике" - "outsiders in politics"

"белые пятна (в наших знаниях)" - "gaps"

What ever effective the devices of translation would be they don't release the interpreter from the necessity to solve chief problem which consists in escaping over-literal rendering during the translation. They are highly dangerous to apply to specific notions and unique realias of Russian culture as they are lack of equivalents in English. The interpreter shouldn't be limited by linguistics only in order to find better equivalents for such notions. He must study different spheres of human life in the country of the source language: its history, literature, psychology, etc. Only in this way there appears a possibility for the truth expert to fulfill the most difficult task - to interpret not just from one language into another language but from one culture into another./10/

Chapter 2. Neologisms and their translation into the Russian language

2.1 The definition of neologism

A neologism is word, term, or phrase which has been recently created - often to apply to new concepts, or to reshape older terms in newer language form. Neologisms are especially useful in identifying inventions, new phenomena, or old ideas which have taken on a new cultural context.

Neologisms are by definition "new," and as such are often directly attributable to a specific individual, publication, period or event. The term "neologism" was itself coined around 1800; thus for some time in the early 19th Century, the word "neologism" was itself a neologism. It can also refer to an existing word or phrase which has been assigned a new meaning.

Neologisms tend to occur more often in cultures which are rapidly changing, and also in situations where there is easy and fast propagation of information. They are often created by combining existing words or by giving words new and unique suffixes or prefixes. Those which are portmanteaus are shortened. Neologisms can also be created through abbreviation or acronym, by intentionally rhyming with existing words, or simply through playing with sounds.

Neologisms often become popular by way of mass media, the Internet, or word of mouth. Every word in a language was, at some time, a neologism, though most of these ceased to be such through time and acceptance.

Neologisms often become accepted parts of the language. Other times, however, they disappear from common usage. Whether or not a neologism continues as part of the language depends on many factors, probably the most important of which is acceptance by the public. Acceptance by linguistic experts and incorporation into dictionaries also plays a part, as does whether the phenomenon described by a neologism remains current, thus continuing to need a descriptor. It is unusual, however, for a word to enter common use if it does not resemble another word or words in an identifiable way. (In some cases however, strange new words succeed because the idea behind them is especially memorable or exciting). When a word or phrase is no longer "new," it is no longer a neologism. Neologisms may take decades to become "old," though. Opinions differ on exactly how old a word must be to no longer be considered a neologism; cultural acceptance probably plays a more important role than time in this regard. After being coined, neologisms invariably undergo scrutiny by the public and by linguists to determine their suitability to the language. Many are accepted very quickly; others attract opposition. Language experts sometimes object to a neologism on the grounds that a suitable term for the thing described already exists in the language. Non-experts who dislike the neologism sometimes also use this argument, deriding the neologism as "abuse and ignorance of the language."

Some neologisms, especially those dealing with sensitive subjects, are often objected to on the grounds that they obscure the issue being discussed, and that such a word's novelty often leads a discussion away from the root issue and onto a sidetrack about the meaning of the neologism itself.

Proponents of a neologism see it as being useful, and also helping the language to grow and change; often they perceive these words as being a fun and creative way to play with a language. Also, the semantic precision of most neologisms, along with what is usually a straightforward syntax, often makes them easier to grasp by people who are not native speakers of the language.

The outcome of these debates, when they occur, has a great deal of influence on whether a neologism eventually becomes an accepted part of the language. Linguists may sometimes delay acceptance, for instance by refusing to include the neologism in dictionaries; this can sometimes cause a neologism to die out over time. Nevertheless if the public continues to use the term, it always eventually sheds its status as a neologism and enters the language even over the objections of language experts.

Till now doesn't exist an unique decision of the question. From what it can be fastening the understanding of neologism, which are the criteria's concerning this or that dictionary of neologism.

The resolving of understanding `'neologism'' by the different investigators becomes clear two points of view, concluding in that, that the term of `'neologism'' using in new style, as a creating on a new material of language in full corresponding with existing in language kinds of words or word combinations, meaning new, beforehand unknown, unexciting understanding, subject, branch of knowledge, profession and so on, f. e. reaction- ядерный реактор, biocide-биологическая война and so on, in such way as neologism, and exactly in new created synonyms already existing in a word language for the meaning of well known understanding almost semantic and stylistic colours of word, which are based on its general meanings, and already to words in new meaning: for example the word boffin (scientist) presented the synonyms of the word scientist, but it already has another semantic colour and so on. Almost marked some difference in contents of that lexical innovations by the cause of its result, of its stability in language, of its clearness of using, of its future destiny when few of them will fast enter into the language, anothers will be less stabile and can be thrown out of using after some short time.

`'Also the presenting of new words connected with resulting of new associations, but the understanding is the same as the language in general, lexical appropriations doing their special actions as the method of connections, rebuilding, differences and clearing with what, that more correctly to show, present and fasten new comprehensions corresponding words and combinations.''

The new-foundation, if it results in periphery, as it gets more fasten demands and unchangeable in word fond. New-foundations, as a rule, presented in the language of science, techniques, art, politic, and in the same time as a neologism in speaking language.

As for the time of criteria for seclusion of new-foundation and neologism exactly to decide it is impossible, it has a sense to use subjective criteria: if it receive the collective language consciousness this or that lexical unit as a new.

For the sequent we will name it with the term `'neologism'', any word for their comfort have the statue of lexical new-foundation, as the quality of own neologism.

The basic complications during the translation of neologisms, it is the explaining of the meaning of the new word.

Particularly the translation of neologism, which meaning has already known to translator, the mission is more easy and it solves by the way of using means, being suspended for the type of the word which belongs to that neologism.

If the new word absents in English-Russian dictionary, as it is need to try to find it in English-English dictionary.

There are `'New words Sections'' in many famous dictionaries. In that time recommends to use dictionaries of the last issue. Many neologisms we can find in dictionaries and sections about slangs. It must remind, that more operative prepared and published dictionaries in little and middle thickness, but they can't satisfy the demands of professionals.

However, the dictionaries in objective causes can't wholly show in their all new-founded words, as for that lexis avoid to include in dictionaries such called `'occasional'' neologisms, individual new-founded, brought by the individual authors, such words also turns `'unlivable words'' and disappear as fast as they appear.Coming out from the term `'neologism'' we can assume, that the translator first meet with his own neologism, naturally he has no imagination, about that which is explained by him.

In general understanding of the context differences to micro context and macro context: under the micro context means the context of the sentence, as linguistic unit, without going out from the circle of the sentence; macro context it is compactness of linguistic unit, surrounding that unit out of the sentence, saying another word-in mixing with them sentences.

Stable type of the macro context is impossible to show- it can be context from group of sentences, chapters or the whole creation, f. e. story, tales, articles or drama.

It is very important that during the using of neologism we must pay attention to macro context, because exactly in it can be `'the prompt word''.

Micro context we can separate into syntactic and lexical. Syntactic context it is the syntactic construction in which used this word, combinations or sentence. Lexical context it is completeness of clear lexical units, words and stable word combinations, as surrounding them we meet this unit.

New words as a rule appeared on base of already existing words and morphs in language. The analyze of that words and morphs can give to the translator real help in clearing the meaning of neologism. For that is necessary to know well the mediums of word shaping in English language, like these:

f. e. the word call in English it means `'named'', `'to call to somebody'' `'telephone ring'' and so on.

One of the most ancient, universal and propagated mediums combinations, which doesn't lose their activeness and now days. One from three of new-founded words in modern English are complicated words.

F. e. carry-back -`'to replace the harm payment to a news period'',

Citiplus- `'City bank (USA)'' and so on.

As the norms of modern English language lets co-ordination of words, carrying the same lexical-grammatical characterizes which connects during the word-foundation of the base, it is explaining that in what reasons the translator works with hard words of neologism, and there are combinations in which:

f. e. closing bank-`'bank, which had already finished its deal, in which took part several banks'';

closing bank-`'bank which has already closed'' and so on.

Now recultivated a row of criteria's for limiting complicated words and word combinations. During the translation of neologisms in English an unique attention has autographical criteria, it's sense is in to review any complex, written together or by dash, as the complicated words and complexes, which components written lone, like combinations.

Dividend-right certificate-`'a certificate which gives you a right to get the certificate'',

Dear-money policy-`'limited credit by the way of rising the percents'',

Fill-or-kill order-`'the order of client to the dealer, which must be done immediately or be annulated.''

In reasons when the word is connected, finishing and beginning in the same sound or consonant, one of them being low:

net + etiquette=netiquette-`'unwritten wholly rule of relations or an information placed in Internet''.

However we must mark that it is not a rule:

Some sections of the American press are upping the case still further by using an even more emotive term `'cyberrape'', to describe the actions of Jake Baker, a 20-year-old American student. (The Independent, 1998).

However, it is necessary to mark, that in many variants viewed incompleteness in writing even the same complex. For example, in reason of man-made `'artificial, made by a man'' 6%- written in lone, 82%-by dash, 12%- together.

The analyze of components numbered in the contents of complicated word, gives to the translator a possibility, knowing its lexical meaning, to clear out the meaning of the whole complex:

Graphite bombing caused power lines destruction turning off life-supports in Belgrade hospitals (Fox News Direct, 1999). How we see the neologism life-supports composed from two pieces life (`'жизнь'') and support (`'поддерживать''), it means that allowed to keep life or be livable, so paying attention on context this neologism we can translate as `'an instrument of life supporting''.

Types of neologism

· Scientific -- words or phrases created to describe new scientific discoveries or inventions. Examples:

o black hole. (1968) A black hole is a concentration of mass great enough that the force of gravity prevents anything from escaping from it except through quantum tunneling behavior.

o laser. (1960) A LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is an optical source that emits photons in a coherent beam.

o prion. Prions -- short for proteinaceous infectious particle -- are infectious self-reproducing protein structures.

o quark. (1960) Quarks are one of the two basic constituents of matter in the Standard Model of particle physics.

o radar . (1941) It is a system used to detect, range (determine the distance of), and map objects such as aircraft and rain.

o posterized. Posterization occurs when a region of an image with a continuous gradation of tone is replaced with several regions of fewer tones, resulting in an abrupt change from one tone to another. This creates an effect somewhat similar to that of a simple graphic poster.

o beetle bank. (early 1990s) In agriculture, a beetle bank is a strip of grass or perennials in a field that provide habitat which fosters and provides cover for insects hostile to pests. They are used as a form of biological pest control to reduce or replace the use of insecticides.

· Science fiction concepts created to describe new, futuristic ideas. Examples:

o Ringworld (1971) Ringworld is a Hugo and Nebula award-winning 1970 science fiction novel by Larry Niven, set in his Known Space universe. The work is widely considered one of the classics of science fiction literature. It is followed by three sequels, and it ties in to numerous other books in the Known Space universe.

o Dyson Sphere (circa 1960) A Dyson sphere is a hypothetical megastructure first described in 1960 by the physicist Freeman Dyson in a short paper published in the journal Science entitled "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation".

· Political -- words or phrases created to make some kind of political or rhetorical point, sometimes perhaps with an eye to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Example:

o political correctness (1990). Political correctness (also politically correct, P.C. or PC) is a term used in English-speaking countries to describe real or perceived attempts to impose limits on the acceptable language and terms used in public discussion. While it usually refers to a linguistic phenomenon, it is sometimes extended to cover political ideology or public behavior.

o sie and hir (neologisms). Sie and hir are two terms proposed to serve as gender-neutral third person singular personal pronouns in English . These neologisms are used by some people who feel that there are problems with gender-specific pronouns because they imply sex and/or gender. However, sie and hir are very rare compared to other solutions and most commentators feel that it is unlikely that they will catch on.

o homophobia (1969). The term "homophobia" is a portmanteau derived from the words homosexual and phobia. In current usage it is employed to refer to the aversion to, or disapproval of physical intimacy and sexual expression between individuals of the same sex and those who engage in such activities. This aversion may range from mild to intense.

o meritocracy (1958) As the suffix "-cracy" implies, meritocracy is strictly speaking a system of government based on rule by ability (merit) rather than by wealth or social position. In this context, "merit" means roughly intelligence plus effort. However, the word "meritocracy" is now often used to describe a type of society where wealth, income, and social status are assigned through competition, on the assumption that the winners do indeed deserve (merit) their resulting advantage. As a result, the word has acquired a connotation of Social Darwinism, and is used to describe aggressively competitive societies, with large inequality of income and wealth, contrasted with egalitarian societies.

o dog-whistle politics (1990). Dog-whistle politics is a term used to describe a type of political campaigning which is "only heard" by a specific intended audience. It is usually used pejoratively by those that do not approve of the tactics.

o genocide. Genocide is the systematic killing of substantial numbers of people on the basis of ethnicity, religion, political opinion, social status or other particularity. The most widely known example is the Holocaust (the genocide of various groups, especially Jews, during World War II by Nazi Germany and its collaborators). Lesser known in the West are Stalin's forced starvation of Ukrainian farmers, or Mao's murder of 20 to 60 million Chinese

o Some political neologisms, however, are intended to convey a negative point of view. Example: brutalitarian

· Pop-culture -- words or phrases evolved from mass media content or used to describe popular culture phenomena (these may be considered a subsection of slang). Examples:

o jumping the shark. Jumping the shark is a metaphor used by US television critics and fans since the 1990s. The phrase, popularized by Jon Hein on his website, jumptheshark.com, is used to describe the moment when a pop culture icon, originally a TV show or similar episodic medium, is in retrospect judged to have passed its "peak" and shows a noticeable decline in quality, or when it has undergone too many changes that take away the original charm and interest.