Translation of neologisms

o Chuck Cunningham syndrome. Chuck Cunningham syndrome is a term that refers to a television series in which a main character or a character otherwise important to the show's plot is removed without explanation. The term comes from the character Chuck Cunningham in the American television series, Happy Days.

o Baldwin (a good-looking man, such as one of the Baldwin family of actors)

o Scooby Gang (a group which humorously resembles the teens on the cartoon Scooby-Doo)

o sex-it-up a recently used phrase describing the memo that was said to be the cause of the Iraq invasion.

· Imported -- words or phrases originating in another language. Typically they are used to express ideas that have no equivalent term in the native language. Examples:

o zen (1727). Zen is the Japanese name of a well known branch of Mahвyвna Buddhist schools, practiced originally in China as Chan (вW), and subsequently in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Zen emphasizes the role of sitting meditation (zazen) in pursuing enlightenment. Zen can be considered a religion, a philosophy, or simply a practice depending on one's perspective. It has also been described as a way of life, work, and an art form.Zen is the common name for this branch of Buddhism in Japanese as well as in English. However, in the last half of the 20th century, Zen has become an international phenomenon, with centers in many countries around the world.

o ao dai (1960s). The ao dai (pronounced 'ao yai' in the South; pronounced 'ao zai' in the North) is a traditional Vietnamese dress worn by women. It is the uniform for female students in Vietnamese secondary schools and universities. The ao dai is and has been more prevalent in southern Vietnam than in northern Vietnam.

o Tet (1968). T?t Nguyen ?an (derived from Chinese ђЯЊі’U), more commonly known as T?t (ђЯ), is the most important holiday in Vietnam. It is the Vietnamese New Year which is based on the Chinese calendar, a lunisolar calendar.

o anime (1988). Anime (ѓAѓjѓЃ) is Japanese animation, sometimes referred to by the portmanteau Japanimation. It is often characterized by stylized colorful images depicting vibrant characters in a variety of different settings and storylines, aimed at a wide range of audiences. Anime is usually influenced by Japanese comics known as manga.

o detente (1960s). Detente is French for relaxation. It was also the general reduction in the tension between the Soviet Union and the United States and a weakening of the Cold War, occurring from the late 1960s until the start of the 1980s. More generally, it may be applied to any international situation where previously hostile nations not involved in an open war "warm up" to each other and threats de-escalate.

o manga. Manga (–џ‰ж) is the Japanese word for comics and/or cartoons (not necessarily animated, this includes print cartoons); outside of Japan, it usually refers specifically to Japanese comics. Manga developed from a mixture of ukiyo-e and Western styles of drawing, and took its current form shortly after World War II.

· Trademarks are often neologisms to ensure they are distinguished from other brands. If legal trademark protection is lost, the neologism may enter the language as a genericized trademark. Example: Laundromat. A laundromat (U.S.), launderette (British), Washette (Southeastern U.S.) or washateria (Southwestern U.S.) is a store where clothes are washed and dried. This is often done by coin operated machines that are worked by the client. Laundromats may have a staff to wash the clothing; this is referred to as Fluff-n-Fold or drop-off service. Laundries are equipped with both washing machines and dryers, usually specialized ones designed to survive heavy use.

· Nonce words -- words coined and used only for a particular occasion, usually for a special literary effect.

· Inverted -- words that are derived from spelling (and pronouncing) a standard word backwards. Example: redrum

· Paleologism - a word that is alleged to be a neologism but turns out to be a long-used (if obscure) word. Used ironically.

Versions of neologisms

*Unstable - Extremely new, being proposed, or being used only by a very small subculture.

Many neologisms have come from popular literature, and tend to appear in different forms. Most commonly, they are simply taken from a word used in the narrative of a book; for instance, McJob(McJob is slang for a low-pay, low-prestige job that requires few skills and offers very little chance of intracompany advancement. The term comes from the fast-food restaurant McDonald's, but applies to any low-status job where little training is required and workers' activities are tightly regulated by managers. Most perceived McJobs are in the service industry, particularly fast food, copy shops, and retail sales.) from Douglas Coupland's Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture and cyberspace from William Gibson's Neuromancer. Sometimes the title of the book will become the neologism. For instance, Catch-22 (from the title of Joseph Heller's novel) and Generation X (from the title of Coupland's novel) have become part of the vocabulary of many English-speakers. Also worthy of note is the case in which the author's name becomes the neologism, although the term is sometimes based on only one work of that author. This includes such words as Orwellian (from George Orwell, referring to his novel Nineteen Eighty-Four) and Ballardesque (from J.G. Ballard, author of Crash). Kurt Vonnegut's Cat's Cradle was the container of the Bokononism family of Nonce words.

Lewis Carroll's poem "Jabberwocky" has been called "the king of neologistic poems" as it incorporated some dozens of invented words. The early modern English prose writings of Sir Thomas Browne 1605-1682 are the source of many neologisms as recorded by the OED

In psychology, a neologism is a word invented by a person suffering from a language disorder, which may occur in the context of psychosis or aphasia acquired after brain damage ; clinicians can sometimes use these neologisms, which often have meaning only to the subject, as clues to determine the nature of the disorder.

In theology, a neologism is a relatively new doctrine (for example, rationalism, also known as the rationalist movement, is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching.). In this sense, a neologist is an innovator in the area of a doctrine or belief system, and is often considered heretical or subversive by the mainstream church.

Methods of coinage neologisms

The studying of linguistic vocabulary in a functional aspect foresees the analysis of methods of coinage neologisms, which enables to pass to the pragmatic aspect of new words. Taking into account the method of appearance neologisms are subdivided into: 1) phonological, 2) borrowing, 3) semantic, 4) syntactic, coined by combination of signs already existing in a language (word building, combination of words). It will be expedient to divide the last type of neologisms into morphological (word building) and phraseological (combination of words).

Phonological neologisms are formed from separate sounds and are unique by their configuration. Such words are sometimes called "artificial" or "invented". The new configurations of sounds are from time to time connected with the morphemes of Greek or Latin origin, example: adhocracy (a flexible organizational system designed to be responsive to the needs of the moment), acryl, perlon (synthetic materials). Words coined from exclamations also belong to the group of phonological neologisms such as: to zap (to make more powerful, exciting; to revitalize) formed from a similar word "zap" which was used in comics for the transmission of the sound of space weapon (in a graphic form ). It is possible here to deliver the words formed by the change of writing for passing their pronunciation, for example: wannabe (a person who wants to be someone else) coined from "want to be", wheneye (a person who exasperates listeners by continually recounting tales of his experiences and exploits) arose up due to an introductory phrase "when I…" Such type of neologisms can be delivered to "strong neologisms", in fact they have the high degree of connotation of newness, that increase by an unusual thing and freshness of their form.

It is possible to concern borrowings which are characterized by untypical for the English language by the distribution, by the morphological division and absence of motivation to strong neologisms. And although on this stage borrowings are on periphery of lexical system, they are still an integral part of innovations. For the last decade growth of borrowings from Japanese ands Spanish has taking place. The main centers of attraction for new borrowings are: 1) art and culture: cinemateque (from French), karaoke (from Japanese); 2) social and political life: Ossi, Wessi (from German) - denotation of citizen of the East and West Germany; fatwa (from Arabic) - a legal decision or ruling given by Islamic religious leader; karoshi (from Japanese) - death caused by overwork or job-related exhaustion; 3) everyday life: taqueria (from Spanish) - a restaurant specializing in Mexican food, particularly tacos; otaku (from Japanese) - people who are obsessed with the trivia of a particular hobby; geek (from Danish) - unfashionable, boring or socially inept person; basuco (from Colombian) - a cheap impure form of cocaine; bimbo (from Italian) - an attractive but unintelligent young woman; 4) scientific and technical borrowings: biogeocenose (from Russian) - ecological system. Barbarisms differ by the greatest degree of newness which are not assimilated units of a new vocabulary, for example: jihad (from Arabic) - a struggle. Xanizms are close to the barbarisms (they are adopted units which represent the specific of the country - the source of borrowing): za-zen (from Japanese) - a type of mediation in Zen Buddhism.

The difference between barbarisms and xanizms that the first ones have synonyms in language-recipient, and the second ones mean the phenomena, objects and concepts, that exist only in a language-source and are strange for other countries.

Substantial diminishment of amount of the traced words is noticeable: traffic calming (from German Verkehrsberuhihung) - the deliberate slowing of traffic, esp. along residential streets, by construction of road humps or other obstacles to progress.

The result of borrowings is not only the addition to lexical composition of the language, the stylish colouring of lexical units changes in the process of borrowing and their inner structure homonymical relations are formed, that promotes, the variation of lexical units and partly predetermines it.

Less neological are morphological neologisms, which appear after standards which exist in the linguistic system from morphemes present in a language. The question is in word building and such regular word building processes as affixation, conversion, word composition, shortening, etc. The main sign, that distinguished morphological neologisms from phonological and from borrowings is the presence of analogy and typology in the basis of their creation.

As to semantic neologisms, the unique problem at their studying is the establishment of criteria after which it is possible to distinguish a separate independent word or a new meaning of already existing word, which are the results of semantic changes.

2.3 Word building models of coinage neologisms

The first attempt of creation taxonomy of word building facilities was made by Platon in his "Cratyl". And although nowadays there appeared several new types of word building, such as acronymy or telescopy (blend), it is possible to speak about existence of traditional taxonomy of word building. The role of word building consists not only in making up new words but in producing the words already existing in a language.

The Bulk of innovations of the last decades, after the researches of I.B. Andrusiak, are the derivative units, formed from words and combination of words and combination of words present in the language, by the various methods of word building.

It is known that one of the most widespread methods of forming derivative words is affixation. There are other facilities of word building such as conversion, composition, blending, shortening acronymy.

For the last decades in coinage of new words there were used 103 suffixes after the I.B. Zabotkinoyi research: - ability, - able, -ac, - asy, - (i)al, - ally, - (i)an, - age, -ance, - ant, - ar, - arium, - ary, - ase, - ate, - atic, - ation, - ative, - cade, - dom, - ectomy, - ed, - ee, - eer, - eme, - emia, - er/or, ers, - ery, - ese, - est, - esque, - et, - eteria, - ette, - fest, - hood, - ia, -iasis, - ic, - ica, - ical, - ician, - icity, - ics, - idase, - ide, - ie, - ification, - ify, - igenic, - in, - ine (adj.), - ine (nominal), - ing, - ino, - ion, - ional, - ish, - ism, - ist, - ite (person), - ite (mineral), - ity, - ium, - ive, - ization, - ize, - ized, - less, - let (te), - ly, - metry, - mycin, - ness, - nik, -o, - oid, - ol, - ola, ologist, ology, - oma, - on, - onium, - orium, - ory, -ose, -osis, - ous, - plex, -ry, -s(area of study), - s (plural of disease), - scape, - ship, - ster, - sville, - tron, - tuplet, - ure, - y(adj.), - y (nominal).

Besides, in formation of new units actively participate semisuffixes (or combing forms): - athon, - friendly, - gate, - gram, - hydro, - intensive, - info, -man, -ship, - oriented, a/oholic, - pedia/paedia, - speak, - tool, - watcher, - wide.

Among prefixes which take part in the coinage of neologisms, prefixes and semiprefixes of the Latin origin prevail. It is worth mentioning the most productive of them: ant-, co-, de-, ne-, non-, post-, pre-, sub-, in-.

The characteristic feature of modern suffixes is their severe pragmatic attaching after the certain sphere of their usage, that is their terminology. Besides the considerable part of innovations belongs to the scientific and technical sphere.

The most active on this stage of development of the language derivation is realized in making up new stylistically neutral words which represents the phenomena of public life and acquires wide distribution among linguists.

For example, the suffix -er, semantics of which foresees the agent of action, v+er>N: stalker (a person who follows or pesters somebody, with whom he/she has become obsessed), comper (a person who enters for competitions regularly in order to win as many prizes as possible), slacker (a person regarded as being one of a large group of people, esp. of young adults who are perceived to lack a sense of direction in life). The model of creation neologism by addition to the noun the suffix -ing is interesting: N+ -ing>N, for example: hydrospeeding (a sport in which participants launch themselves down rapids holding on to a float); carjacking (the violent abduction or "hijacking" of a car or its driver).

In policy it is widespread derivation of neologisms with the help of suffix -ism or semisuffix -nomics to the proper names, for example: Brairism (the political and economic policies of the British Labour politician Tony Blair), Majorism, Clintonomics (the economic policies of President Clinton) Nixonomics. Especially important in the aspect of functional neology is efemerism (words of wide use in a certain period of public development, as a rule, connected with activity of political figures which after words pass to the general fund according to the definite events): Thatcherism, Raiganomics.It follows that this model activates as a result of certain changes in the life of the society.

The period of spreading of feministic movement also imposed the imprint on the linguistic system, expressed in the suffixes of the neutral tender colouring, for example: -eer - marketeer (a specialist in marketing), -tron - waitron (a waiter or waitress). The suffix -ed is used in formation of adjectives from verbs, for example, after the model V+ed>Adj. there appeared such neologisms as: oxygenated (containing oxygenate additives which reduce harmful emission such as carbon dioxide), caffeinated (containing caffeine, having had caffeine added), challenged (lacking a physical or mental attribute, not having a specified skill).

Word building with prefixes is less spread, but nevertheless lexical units demonstrate the semantic loading of prefixes and semiprefixes.

In fact not only the root of word but also its affixes show their semantic signs, for example: reskill (to retrain in the skills required by a modern business), outsource (to obtain by contract from a source outside an organization or area; to contract out).

Some affixes are more used in everyday intercourse because they have marking "slang". One of the most active suffixes of slang is a suffix -y/-ie, which developed a new humiliatingly-ironical meaning, forming neologisms after the model N+-y/-ie>N. Words, coined with the help of this suffix, limited in the use and are kept indoors of inofficial communication, mainly among young people. For example: fundie (a fundamentalist, esp. a religious one), foodie (a person whose hobby or main interest is food, a gourment). Although, at the same time in the language there continues to exist the suffix -y in its diminished-tender meaning: techie (an expert in or enthusiast for technology, esp. computing, a technician), monty (everything that is necessary or appropriate, "the works"). Besides the sufficient word building activity is shown by the omonymical suffix -y which forms new adjectives, for example: touchy-feely (given to a tactile expression of one's feellings, motivated by emotion rather than intellect).

The analysis of structure feature of word building bases leads that among them abbreviations, acronyms, compound words and even phrases which become a new tendecy in derivation of affixes are distinguished. One of the productive models with bases of a similar type is the Acronym model+-ie>N. The innovations after such algorythm have status of words which represent the division of society in the USA and Great Britain into different groups and layers, for example: yuppie (young urban professional) and rumpie (rural upwardly mobile professional). By analogy with these neologisms, other words appear: muppie (middle-aged urban professional person), yeepie (youthful energetic elderly people), woopie (well-off older person).

To neologisms of this type it is possible to concern such words as: dinkie (double income, no kids) - childless family, nilkie (no income, lost of kids) - family with many children of an unemployed person. But the lexical units, formed after this model have ironical connotation strengthened due to the suffix -ie, and their usage is limited by the representatives of the middle class.

On the whole for the word building models of neologisms with the help of affixes the characteristic tendecy is the multisignificance. Especially ramified semantic structure is distinguished by the models of formation nouns with the help of affixes that it is conditioned by their cognition feature to mark objects, phenomena, processes of the real reality in the whole variety of their connections and relations, each of which can find oneself in man's eyeshot and become the object of process of cognition. The system of word building with the help of affixes of the English language is not only one of the active neogenic methods of addition to dictionary composition but also is marked by high potential to self-fulfilling, what testifies about the appearance of new word building models; affixes and also new components in their semantic structure, and pragmatic differentiation of affixes after different spheres of the use also differs.

The appearance of derivatives is caused by not only nominative necessity of a new denotation but also stylistic factors: the use of derivatives is instrumental in the syntactic compactness of the text, its expressiveness.

The prime example of such words is the compound words where semantic and syntactic compression is observed the same time - the expansion of syntactic functions of initial structure. Compound words are coined in two ways: composition which means drafting of bases and confluence (blending telescopy), the process of formation of the unit itself in which one truncated element and complete form of the other element, is connected.

An underproductive type of making up compound words is also possible. That is the contamination which means imposition of final element of the first word to the omonymical beginning of the second one, as for example, in the word of "twigloo" ("twig"+"igloo"). The formation of telescope nominations and word-bars is caused by "the principle of the least efforts" and is one of the law economy display of language efforts.

The basic model of composition is N+NN besides the new word can be written in one and with a hyphen. For example, basehead (a person who habitually takes cocaine in the form of freebase or crack), towelhead (a person who wears a headcloth or turban), toyboy (an attractive young man who is kept as a lover by an older person), lifestyle (the total sum of the likes and dislikes of a particular customer). The productive model is also A+NA: for example, hard-ass (difficult, tough, uncompromising). Neogenic are also not traditional models, as Adv.+Num.V (for example, "to high-five - to slap high-fives in celebration of something or as a greeting"); V+Adj.Adv ("drop-dead" - referring to an attractive person: very stunningly).

Some researchers indicate to existence of separate type of compound words, namely syntactic, the basis of which serve combinations of words; sentences or parts of sentence. The semantic capacity of derivation units is practically unlimited, as they are able to include variable information a linguist intends to pass. For example, hole-in-the-wall (machine which dispenses cash and gives information about a person's bank accounts).

The model like this is very interesting Prep.+NAdj.: for example, "for-profit" - intended to make a profit, profit-making. A "bulky" of these new words promotes their shortening, as a result acronyms appear, for example: do-it-yourselfD.I.Y.; ready-to-wearr-t-w.

Such word building method as blanding is rather widespread in the modern English, for example: Japanimation (animated cartoons produced in Japan). Thus both models with truncating of the component and models with truncating of both elements are active. In the first case first part of the compound word can be unchangeable (for example, netizen - network user, from "net" + "(cit)izen", mokney - inauthentic and affected imitation of cockney, from "mock" + "(cock)ney"), or its final element (for example, feminazi - a radical feminist, from "femi(nist)" + "nazi", emergicenter - a clinic offering emergency outpatient treatment, from "emerg(ency)" + "center"). Making up of the new telescope words has been activating during the last decades, where both elements are the subject to truncating, namely the final truncating of the first component and initial truncating of the following: edutainment (entertainment with an educational aspect; from "edu(cation)" + "(enter)tainment"), vegelate (chocolate which contains a certain proportion of vegetable fat other than cocoa butter, from "vege(table)" + "choco(late)").

A tendency to formation of "haplological" telescope neologisms is multiplied in which laying of phonemes on the collision of two words is observed, for example: faction (fiction, based on facts, from "fact" + "(fi)ction").

Telescope nominations, as well as compound words represent the tendency to universalization and rationalization of the language, demonstrate different degrees of motivation and division.Thus the degree of their division and motivation is lower, that is explained by the presence of the hidden cut off elements.

Conversion as the method of coinage of new words by derivation has considerably reduced its activity for the last years. Active models are mutual transitions of nouns and verbs, V>N and N>V: drive-by (a shooting carried out from a moving vehicle), add-in (something which is added to a computer or other system to improve in capabilities or perfomance), to mouse (to carry out by using a mouse), to reskill (to retrain workers in the skills required by a modern business). A new model appears: shortening of the phrase and substantivation of the adjective A>N, for example: plastic (credit cards, debit cards, and other plastic cards which can be used in place of money to pay for goods and services).

Shortening as a result of the action of the law of language economy are also widely used among the word building methods of coinage neologisms. Thus a word has a tendency to shortening both initial and final elements of the structure. For example, burb - a suburb, a suburban area; rad - really good or exciting; cool, hip, awesome (from "radical"). Some innovations assimilate in the language, getting new signs: diss (an insult or put-down, from "disrespect"), or skell (a homeless person, a derelict, from "skeleton"). The others remain changeable shortened variants of existing equivalents in the language: aero (aerodynamic in design or appearance), impro (a form of live entertainment based on improvisation and interaction with the audience). It worth mentioning that the shortened words are most often used in the colloquial speech in the case when the speakers exactly know, what the question is about, and there is no need to use the initial variant of the certain word.

Acronymy is also rather active method of word building and words-acronyms are often spread among linguists and become current, at first as fashionable words (buzz-words), later as comfortable colloquial forms. For example, FOB (a supporter of President William Jefferson Clinton; from "Friend Of Bill"), FAQ (a document, usually in electronic form online, containing a list of questions most often asked about a particular subject, usually with answers to them; from "Frequently Asked Questions") Acronyms from current phrases, also exist and function in the language, as for example: BTW (by the way) or TINA (there is no alternative).

Some of the ways of forming new words in present - day English can be resorted to for the creation of new words whenever the occasion demands - these are called productive ways of forming words. Other ways of forming words cannot produce new words as readily and these are commonly termed non-productive or unproductive. For instance, affixation has been a productive way of forming new words ever since the Old English period, whereas, sound-interchange must have been at one time a productive word-building means but in Modern English its function is actually only to distinguish between different classes and forms of words.

The high productivity of conversion finds its reflection in speech where numerous occasional cases of conversion can be found, which are not registered in dictionaries and which occur momentarily, through the immediate need of situation. (16, p.90) Conversion is universally accepted as one of the major ways of enriching English vocabulary with new words.

It follows that productivity of word-building ways, individual derivational patterns and derivational affixes is understood as their ability of making new words which all who speak English find no difficulty in understanding , in particular their ability to create what is called occasional words or nonce-words (more unstable, serve the immediate purpose as compared to neologisms, but the border is very slight). The term means that the speaker coins such words when he needs them, if on another occasion the same word is needed again, he coins it afresh. Needless to say dictionaries do not as a rule record occasonal words.The following words may serve as illustration: collarless (appearance), a Dickensish ( office), to unlearn ( the rules), etc.

Recent investigations seem to prove however that productivity of derivational means is relative in many respects. Moreover there are no absolutely productive means, derivational patterns and derivational affixes have different degrees of productivity. Each part of speech is characterized by a set of productive derivational patterns, peculiar to it. Three degrees of productivity are distinguished for derivational patterns and individual derivational affixes: 1) highly-productive, 2) productive or semi- productive and 3) non-productive. (26, p. 112) By productive affixes we mean the ones, which take part in deriveng new words at this particular period of language development. The best way to indentify productive affixes is to look for them among nonce words. They are usually formed on the level of living speech and reflect the most productive and progressive patterns in word building.One should not mix the productivity of affixes with their frequency of occurrence. There are quite a number of high-frequency affixes which, nevertheless, are no longer used in word derivation (the adjective-foming native suffixes -ful, -ly; the adjective-forming suffixes of Latin origin - ant, -al which are quite frequent).

As for compounding, we can say that the structural type of compound words and the word-building type of composition have certain advantages for communication purposes. Composition is not quite so flexible (productive) a way of coining new as conversion but flexible enough to create numerous nonce words. These words are comparatively laconic, absorbing into one word an idea that otherwise would have required a whole phrase (cf. The hotel was full of week-enders and The hotel was full of people spending the week-end there). (16, p.20)

We should also mention the reason why such word building ways as shortening, acronyms and blendings are so productive. It can be explained by their brevity and it is due to the ever-increasing tempo of modern life. In meeting the needs of communication and fulfilling the laws of information theory requiring a maximum signal in the minimum time the lexical system undergoes modification in its basic structure: namely it forms new elements not by their combining existing morphemes and proceeding from sound forms to their graphic representation but the other way round- coining new words form the initial letters of phrasal terms originating in texts. (17, p. 144)

Stylistic stratification of neologisms

Any social conduct, including the language activity is regulated by rules. As stylistic stratification of neologisms is based on the pragmatic rules which impose the limitation on the use of lexical units, it is necessary to keep to the chart structure of lexical meaning of a word, developed by M.B.Nikitin.

In his monograph "Lexical meaning in word and combination of word" he praves that in the content of a word it is pointed out the intension (kernel of meaning); implication (all stereotype associations which are traditionally connected with the denotation), emotion (subjectively-accessed component: feeling tone, emotive valeur). The components of word meaning can be correlated with any three aspects of meaning. If they are correlated with intension, denotative inclination of a word outlines the spheres of its adequate usage, the circle of possible situations of intercourse. For example, the detonative specifics of the words applet, add-in limits their usage by the scopes of the situations linked with the use of computer. Pragmatic components can be localized in the implication of meaning. For example, it is necessary to know for the correct use of word babe (an attractive girl or young woman) that the components of this type encode the social, age-old, sexual, ethnic parameters of speakers, their role relations. And finally, given components can be correlated with the emotion of meaning and expressed through the mark in the dictionary (pejorative, mocking, ironical, derogatory), through the emotionally-painted word building elements, through the assessed words in definition. These pragmatic components encode such parameters of situational variation as the tone of situation of intercourse, intention of the linguist. According to this it is possible to distinguish three large layers in a new vocabulary:

1) words with intensional pragmatic components;

2) words with emotional pragmatic components;

3) words with implicational pragmatic components.

Semantical models of coinage of neologisms

Among the researchers there is no the only thought about the status of semantic innovations. Criteria, according to which it is possible to distribute the semantic changes on those which conduce to appearance of an independent word, and those which result is the appearance of a new meaning in already existent lexical unit aren't developed till now. The hypothesis that semantic word creation consists in reinterpretation of previous words and in forming of homonyms by disintegration of word in two ones is the only offered way out from this situation.

It follows that about complement, independent lexical unit it is possible to speak only in the case when the semantic changes of the polysemantic word where brought to the complete gap of the community of the semantic connection between the separate meanings of the word, that is to the formation of the homonym with the absolutely different meaning. But this thought is not often adopted because there are no objectively certain algorythms of referring of innovations to the homonyms. From the other side, some authors eliminate semantic innovations considerating neologisms at all. Nevertheless nowadays two ways of studying of semantic neologisms were set in our time: 1) distinguishing of semantic word building models and establishment of formal criteria of grant to innovations the status of new word-homonyms. 2) the analysis examination of the results of the semantic transformations as the new meanings in the semantic structure of existed lexemes.

It's worth mentioning that at differentiation of concepts "formation of word" and "formation of meaning" the change of lexico-grammatical description of a word is necessary to point out that if a word passes to the other lexico-grammatical digit, the question is about lexico-semantical word-building. For example, the word "squeegee" the old meaning of which is "rubber-edged implement set on a handle and used for cleaning window" and the new meaning of it is "a person who cleans the window screen of a car stopped in traffic and solicits payment from the driver".

Both meanings are incorporated by the same semantic "cleaning windows" but transition of a word in other lexico-grammatical category is needed to consider as a result of lexico-semantical word building. It means that words are independent lexical units (homonyms).

However such perspective on the whole, approach to the question about the lexico-semantical word-building has the row of lacks: a) more or less clear determination of concept of differentiating lexico-semantical sings, that assumes subjectivism at the division of words on lexico-grammatical classes is absent; b) the mechanism of semantic transformations is not taken into consideration, as a result some innovations, got by an identical way can be set in the digit of words, and others - in the digit of meanings; c) the durability of the semantic communication which can be between the meaning of polysemantic word, considerably stronger than lexico-grammatical sings is not taken into account.

Most researches adhere to the point of view, that in all cases, where the semantic connection between the meanings of polysemantic word is kept, if should be considered as word-lexeme, that contains the certain amount of lexico-semantical variants (or meanings). It is up to the status of the semantic new formations too, which are the lexico-semantical variants of a word.

On the whole, the semantic method of nomination belongs to those phenomena in the language, which are not considerd to synonymous interpretation. It is obviously explained that the talk is about semantic processes which belong to semasiology and onomasiology at the same time.

The formation of homonyms in their classic understanding is rather rare phenomenon, if to examine the word building for the short span of time. It is possible to give such examples of neologisms: to zap - to make more powerful, exciting or lively; to revitalize; to spice or pep up, while the previous meaning of the word 1) to kill; 2) to break; 3) to take aback; to veg - to pass the time in vacuous inactivity, while the first meaning "to veg" - "to vegetate"; rock - a crystallized form of cocaine which is smoked for its stimulating effects, where the initial meaning of the word was: 1) a cliff, a mountain; 2) a stone; 3) swinging; 4) music style; 5) slang - money.

Most semantic neologisms are new lexico-semantical variants of words that formed on the basis of already existent lexical units and are complemented with the lexico-semantical variants of these words. As the elements of the difficult polysemantic structure have hierarchical interdependence, at the analysis of neologisms it is necessary to distinguish the initial meanings in relation to which semantic innovations are derivative. But in the process of semantic nomination not always the main (invariant) meaning is primary. Two basic types of formation of lexico-semantical variants are considered in this connection: 1) the chain one, when the last meaning of the polysemantic word with the semantic structure of subsequent increases comes forward in quality of an initial word; 2) radial, when the basic meaning serves at the initial for all subsequent innovations between which there appears the relation of parallelism.

The example of semantical innovation by a chain method can be neologism "space" (the freedom to think, act, or be oneself) that is coined as a result of the successive evolution of meanings which follow from each other: 1) unused or unfilled gap or area between two or more objects or points; 2) unoccupied area or place available for use; 3) large area (esp. of land not built on); 4) continuous expanse in which all things exist and move; 5) universe beyond the earth's atmosphere in which all other planet and stars exist, that is "distance between two objects" - "unoccupied territory" - "large area (not built up)" - "continuous space" - "freedom (space) for thought and actions".

The example of the radial method can be the coinage of neologism "mule" (a person who acts as a courier for illegal drugs). It arose up parallel with such meanings as: 1) animal that is the offspring of a donkey and horse, used for carrying load and noted for its stubbornness; 2) stubborn person, independent of each other, but combined with the basic meaning "the creature for moving the load".

In the basis of semantical nomination the formal-logical relations are fixed between concepts, which represent certain associations able to appear in a man's consciousness. For the semantical method of nomination such types of relations are relevant: a) subordination of concepts that at the semantic level are expressed in the processes of expansion and narrowing of meaning; b) intersection, that is the basis of semantical process of metaphorical and metonymical transfers.

Semantical neologisms are formed from roots, affixes and difficult lexical units (including word combinations). While analysing the innovations it is also important to distinguish between the use of existent lexemes for the nomination of new objects and phenomena and the usage of this method for vivid, synonymous detonation of objects and phenomena which have already the expressively neutral name. For example, "pen" - a hand-held device used as a writing tool to input commands and data into a computer via a screen versus "kicking" as a synonyms to the words of "exciting", "great", "lively", "excellent."

There are such semantic processes, except of above enumerated, as worsening and improvement of meaning, which are connected with the change of connotative element of the word meaning.

Narrowing of meaning takes place in accordance with the model: A> a (where A is the basis of the seme of gender meaning (archiseme), and a - the differentiating seme of the specific meaning). For example, "adventure" - a type of computer game in which the player plays a role in a story involving stimulated danger; an instance of playing this king of game; or a computer slang word "export" - to transfer (data) out of one computer system into another or from one application within a computer to another; in business sphere neologism "niche" is also used in the narrowed meaning - a position from which an entrepreneur is able to exploit a gap in the market; a profitable section of a market; or informal "hole-in-the-wall" that means "a machine usually installed in an outside wall of a bank, which dispenses cash and gives information about a person's bank account". In the policy of Canada is widely functioned neologism "allophone" - a person, living in a French Canada who speaks a language (and is of ethnic descent) other than French or English.

In prison slang is widely spread the innovation "beast" - a person convicted of a sexual offence, that also shows narrowing or specialization of the meaning.

Expansion of meaning passes according to the model A · a > A. For example, trainspotter in the slang usage gets the generalized meaning "an obsessive follower of any minority interest or specialized hobby". The other slang lexical unit also shows the expansion of the meaning: "babe" - an attractive young woman; similarly as well as "item" - a couple in romantic or sexual relationship, and "squeegee" - a person, who cleans the windowscreen of a car stopped in traffic and solicits payment from the driver.

The metaphorical transfers consists in the removal or replacement of the basic (genitive) seme (archiseme) at saving of differential (specific seme) which becomes the initial seme of denomination. This type of semantical transformation can be examined as a symmetric relationship of two names with replacement of archisemes. For example, green shoots - signs of growth or renewal, especially of economic recovery. Schematically this metaphorical transfer can be given as A·b (where b - new growth, A - about plants) - B·c (B - new growth, c - about economy). Similar coined neologism "jungle fever" - a burning desire to engage in an interracial sexual relationship. Schematically this transfer is described as: A·b (where A - malaria, b - severe form) - B·c (B - severe, burning desire, c - an interracial relationship).

The model of metaphorical transfer N_{zool >} N_pers is very active in formation of substandard vocabulary, for example, neologism "mule" - a person, who acts as a courier for illegal drugs; "bird" - an attractive young woman or girl.

Some neologisms which are the names of people are formed according to the model: N_obj > N_pers: "squeegee" > a person who cleans the wind screen of car stopped in a traffic and solicits payment from the driver (old meaning - a rubber-edged implement set on a handle used for cleaning windows); "anorak" > a person who pursues an interest with obsessive dedication (old meaning - kind of a jacket).

But it is necessary to distinguish to basic types of metaphorical transfer: 1) metaphorical transfer which is based on the obvious similarity of objects, for example: bubble - a woman's hair style in which the hair is arranged in a round bubblelike shape; whisker - a thick hair-like crystal of great strength; 2) the metaphorical transfer in the basis of which the association is fixed, connected related with the name of the object: vegetable - a person who is like a vegetable; a lifeless, inert creature.

Metonymy (contiguity of meaning in the basis) is another source of formation of semantical neologisms, however it is not as active as metaphor, for example "air miles" - a consumer incentive scheme under which credits redeemable for free air travel are issued to frequent flyers, or to people taking part in designated transaction; "juice" - a favourable standing position, power of influence.

The metonymical transfers consist in that the basic seme of one word is the component of the second word, thus the relations between elements have asymmetric character. For example "longhair" - a person wearing long hair; "skinhead" - a person wearing closely cropped hair. Neologisms coined by mentonymy are constituents of word combinations: "brain-drain" - the emigration of scientists, scholars; "blue-helmet" - a member of the international military peacekeeping force of the United Nations, whose uniform includes a blue helmet.

Semantical processes which are up to the changes in the denotative component of lexical meaning are expressed through the generalization (expansion of meaning) or concretization (narrowing of meaning). A tendency to narrowing of meaning is observed in the processes of formation of terminology, for example: to import/to export - to transfer (data) into/out of a computer from/into another one; adventure - a type of a computer game in which the player plays a role in a story involving simulated danger. In current words sometimes stylistically marked as a "slang" the process of expansion of meaning can be observed. For example: item - couple in a romantic or sexual relationship; trainspotter - an obsessive follower of minority interest or specialized hobby. In the last case the worsening of meaning is present. Neologism "babe" in the meaning of "an attractive young woman" also shows the expansion of meaning in connection with the appearance in the detonative element of word of new seme. The semantic changes in the connotative component of the meaning mean acquisition by lexical units of negative or positive estimation. These changes of lexical meaning are conditioned by the social factors. For example, word "dude" - old meaning: a swell, a dandy; new meaning - person, a guy, one of the "gang" or neologism "mad" - old meaning: crazy, unwell in head; new meaning - remarkable, unusual, exciting.

"Payoration" of meaning in contrast to "melioration" is more difficult to observe as the majority of stylistically marked word have the certain seme of negative meaning in its lexical meaning. But nevertheless there are instants of worsening of meaning at the formation of neologisms: trainspotter - old meaning: a person with a strange unusual hobby; new meaning - an obsessive follower of any minority interest or specialized hobby. In the gained new meaning this neologisms is used as a scornfull slang word.