The multiple identity status and psychological well-being of the Chinese and Taiwanese in the new sociocultural context
Multiple identity and psychological well-being forged in sociocultural context. Theories of multiple identities. De-identification and identity incompatibility. Multiple identity and psychological well-being. Sociocultural context of Taiwan problem.
| Рубрика | Психология |
| Вид | дипломная работа |
| Язык | английский |
| Дата добавления | 07.12.2019 |
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National Research University Higher School of Economics
Faculty of Social Sciences
Department of Psychology
Master's program Applied Social Psychology
Title of the study:
“The multiple identity status and psychological well-being of the Chinese and Taiwanese in the new sociocultural context”
Student`s name:
Stavtsev Alexey
Scientific supervisor:
Candidate of Sciences* (PhD) in
Social Psychology
Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Galyapina V.N.
Moscow-2019
Abstract
The problem of Taiwan's independence was largely studied in political, economical and social aspects, however there is a gap in psychological studies related with this problem. For past 70-ty years we can outline significant changes in Taiwan general public's identity status. This work assumes that there are 3 generations of Taiwanese 1st (60+ years old), 2nd (35-60 years old) and 3rd (18-35 years old), which differs by their identity status and the level of sociocultural distance with mainlanders of China. We suppose that identity status influence psychological well-being and self-efficacy of respondents. Research sample included 171 participants. We used the following scales: Chinese identity, Taiwanese identity, de-identification, incompatibility of identity, sociocultural distance, life satisfaction, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. Using structural equation modeling we found that the significance of Chinese identity was declining, and the significance of Taiwanese identity increased from generation to generation. At the same time, de-identification and the incompatibility of identities increased from generation to generation. Chinese identity was negatively related to psychological well-being and self-efficacy. In contrast, Taiwanese identity was positively associated with psychological well-being and self-efficacy. De-identification and incompatibility of identities were negatively associated with life satisfaction and self-efficacy through material cultural distance and inward cultural distance.
Keywords: multiple identity, psychological well-being, Taiwan, Taiwan's independence, sociocultural distance.
- Introduction
- 1. Multiple identity and psychological well-being forged in sociocultural context
- 1.1 Multiple identities
- 1.2 Theories of multiple identities
- 1.3 De-identification and identity incompatibility
- 1.4 Multiple identity and psychological well-being
- 1.5 Sociocultural distance, multiple identities and psychological well-being
- 1.6 Sociocultural context of Taiwan problem
- 2. Methods
- 2.1 Sample
- 2.2 Research design
- 3. Results
- 3.1 Generation differences
- 3.2 Structural modeling (SEM)
- 4. Discussion and Conclusion
- 4.1 Limitations
- Appendix
Introduction
multiple identity taiwan
Modern migration processes rise the actuality of problem of multiple identity. Authors of multiple identity concepts (Deborrah E. S. Frable, 1997; Widdicombe, 2015; Chao & Moon, 2005) state, that the concept of multiple identity is the key to see person as whole. In multicultural societies, people could form different social identities, which positively influence on their psychological well-being (Brook, Garcia & Fleming, 2008; Campbell, Trapnell, Heine, Katz, Lavallee & Lehman, 1996). It's important to maintain identities harmony and avoid cases of disidentification and identity incomparability, because this will lead to psychological well-being decrease (Verkuyten & Yildiz, 2007; Wiley, 2012; Abu-Rayya, 2006; Hirsh & Kang, 2016). One of the most significant factors which impact on forming multiple identity, as well as disidentification and identity incomparability is sociocultural distance (Brook, Garcia & Fleming, 2008; Campbell, Trapnell, Heine, Katz, Lavallee & Lehman, 1996). In this area one of the most interesting cases is Taiwan (official country's name - the Republic of China). General public of Taiwan are predominantly Chinese (“Han” - 95%, CIA: The World Factbook), last and most significant wave of Chinese immigration to Taiwan was in 1949 after KMT (Kuomingtang) lose to CCP (Chinese Communists Party) in a civil war. Migrants do not support new political system of CCP, however saved their identity as Chinese (Wang, 2012). 70-ty years of living in different socio-political conditions from Mainland China (political system, economy system, etc.) (Chang, 2014) lead to situation in which Taiwan's residents start to find Taiwanese identity more significant than Chinese identity (Mazza, 2014), according to that fact Chinese mainlanders are perceived as significantly distant in sociocultural aspect, especially young generation (Mazza, 2014).
All above formulated the problem of present research: How the relationship between Chinese identity, Taiwanese identity, de-identification, incompatibility of identities and psychological well-being, self-efficacy changes in different generations of Taiwan's citizens (1st 60+ y.o.; 2nd 35-60 y.o.; 3rd 18-35 y.o.) in a new sociocultural context?
The aim of this study is to identify the relationship of multiple identity, de-identification and incompatibility of identities with psychological well-being and self-efficacy among 3 generations of Taiwan's residents.
Novelty and scientific significance of this study is due to that fact that most of the previous research on the problem of Taiwanese identity focus on economic and political aspects of the problem (Chang, 2014; Wang, 2012). There were few studies covering the psychological attitude towards problem of Taiwan independence and there were focused on the opinion of Taiwan's citizens. This study will try to find answers on significant changes in public opinion throw identity issues and psychological well-being and try to establish in which way sociocultural context influence on such kind of issues. Previous studies research the role of sociocultural distance in which it was rather significant. In our study real, cultural distance is low (Taiwan's general public is very close to Chinese identity - same language, same cultural traditions and norms), however social distance between island and mainland China dramatically increase. This research directed to identify the role of perceptional sociocultural distance (considering the low real distance) in forming multiple identity of Taiwan's general public and its relationship with psychological well-being.
Research questions:
1. What is relationship between identity status, de-identification, incompatibility of identities and psychological well-being, self-efficacy of Taiwan's residents?
2. Which is the role of perceptional cultural distance in interconnection of Chinese/Taiwanese identity, generation, de-identification, incompatibility of identities and psychological well-being, self-efficacy of Taiwan's residents?
Hypotheses:
1. Generation factor impacts on severity of Chinese and Taiwanese identities, De-identification, Incompatibility of identities, Psychological well-being and Self-efficacy.
1.1. Severity of Chinese identity will decrease in each generation from 1st to 3rd.
1.2. Severity of Taiwanese identity will increase in each generation from 1st to 3rd.
1.3. De-identification will increase in each generation from 1st to 3rd.
1.4. Incompatibility of identities will increase in each generation from 1st to 3rd.
1.5. Psychological well-being and self-efficacy will increase in each generation from 1st to 3rd.
2. Chinese identity is negatively interconnected with psychological well-being and self-efficacy of Taiwan's residents.
3. Taiwanese identity is positively interconnected with psychological well-being and self-efficacy of Taiwan's residents.
4. De-identification is positively interconnected with cultural distance and negatively interconnected with psychological well-being and self-efficacy of Taiwan's residents.
5. Incompatibility of identities is positively interconnected with cultural distance and negatively interconnected with psychological well-being and self-efficacy of Taiwan's residents.
1. Multiple identity and psychological well-being forged in sociocultural context
1.1 Multiple identities
Identity - is a complex of qualities, personality traits, beliefs, looks and expressions that makes individual or a group (James, 2015). The spectrum of factors, which influence on person's identity is large and various. We identify ourselves by race, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, beliefs, religion, relation to any social groups, wealth, etc. The concept of social identity to explain intergroup behavior was introduced by Henri Tajfel as a part of social identity theory (Tajfel, 1974). There are plenty of studies about different dimensions of individual's identity, for example “Gender, Racial, Ethnic, Sexual, and Class Identities” (Deborrah E. S. Frable, 1997), in her work, author outlines different areas of person's self-identification: gender, racial and ethnic and class identities, furthermore she states that to understand the people's identity fully, we need to study the concept of multiple identity, this is the key to see person as whole. The complexity of theoretical background of the identity brings us to natural question: “Is it so crucially important for psychological well-being to have identity?” - There are a number of studies that proves the importance of identity. One of the most interesting works is a book “Handbook of Self and Identity” (Leary & Tangney, 2003), authors study the processes of establishing self-identity of individuals, and show the importance of identity throw examples of awry self-identity development which lead to emotional and behavioral problems. Furthermore, evidence of identity importance mentioned in almost any scientific research related with this topic. In general, the simplest way to define concept of identity is individual's identity is personal state of how person sense self, of who he/she is. The next step is to give the definition of multiple identity - most of us have their identities in different dimensions, for example gender identity, ethnic identity, group affiliation identity, etc. However, the concept of identity is very wide, so there are a lot of cases in which person have more than one identity in a dimension (Widdicombe, 2015).
1.2 Theories of multiple identities
In this study, multiple identity concept will be examined throw the cultural identity. The area of information which contains world culture is huge, however in a framework of this study, culture is a totality of traditions, customs, beliefs, moral principles, model of behavior, etc. which suit and describe a certain social group and individual's constituent it. To describe cultural identity and a multiple form of cultural identity we should introduce the concept of cultural mosaic (Chao & Moon, 2005), this term proposed by Chao G.T. & Moon H. (2005:1128) “We introduce the term cultural mosaic as a metaphoric conceptualization of multiple indicators of cultures used to describe an individual.” (2005:1129) “A mosaic is a composite picture made up of distinct colored tiles or miniature photographs. That is, both the overall picture and the multitude of colored tiles are simultaneously distinguishable. Viewing an individual's culture as a cultural mosaic allows for simultaneous observation of global individual culture and localized cultural influences.”. The cultural mosaic is a system which help to understand individual's sense of multiple cultural identity by showing what patterns of behavior from what type of cultural identity individual chose depending on social situation. Chao & Moon gives such taxonomy of culture mosaic, they define an individual's culture mosaic as comprising 3 primary categories: demographic, geographic, and associate features of culture (Appendix: Table 1). All this categories perform several tiles: demographic tiles - typical variables of cultural mosaic of this category includes age, gender, race, ethnicity; geographic tiles - the variables of this category refers to physical features of region, includes climate, temperature, coastal-inland, urban-rural, and regional-country distinctions; associate tiles - represent variables which shows with whom individual or a social group choose to identify, includes formal and informal groups related to one's family, religion, profession, employer, politics, and avocations. Through the concept of cultural mosaic, we can understand the cultural identity of sample group and test their self-identity, moreover we can look for behavior options of representatives of different cultural identities, compare them and bring a classification, which could be used in understanding and solving many practical issues, such as conflicts between individuals, based on different cultural identity.
Another significant work about multiple identities and the approaches of studying it, performed by Lakshmi Ramarajan (2014), in her research author organizes approaches of studying multiple identities (Appendix: Table 2,3), based on her theory further approaches to understand multiple identity concept will be used:
Social identity theory - this theory shows multiple identities of an individual in a hierarchical structure, depends on social situation one of the identities become more preferable, this single identity form current behavior of the individual, while suppressing individual's other identities. Individuals identities in this case based on social group, in which individual included (Tajfel & Turner, 1987). Further development of this theory brings to a different way of studying single preferable identity and the mechanisms of choosing it. First way is made from the concept that single preferable identity chooses not from one of existing social identities, but forms in a specter way from 3 perceptions of identity: personal identity, social role identity, social group/collective identity (Brewer & Gardner, 1996). Second way is concept of switching identities, so the preferable identity is social identity, however, the could be more than one suitable, so depending on the social situation social identity constantly switching each other form behavior of individual (Benet-Martэґnez, Lee & Leu, 2006; Briley, Morris & Simonson, 2005; Phinney, 1990). Third way is dual identity concept in which two social identities could be preferable simultaneously (Benet-Martэґnez & Haritatos, 2005; Blader, 2007). Fourth way is social identity complexity (Roccas & Brewer, 2002) this way shows possibility of preference of many social identities at the same time on the example of Asian-Americans.
The working self-concept - this concept shows individual as a cognitive construct which is dynamic and flexible. Individuals have many self-concepts which is implementing as their identity based on social situation. This self-concept could be distinct from others (independent), tied to others (interdepended), closely tied to others (relational) (Markus, 1977).
Self-complexity - this concept shows that the multiple vision of self of the individual are structured. The key idea of this concept is to state which different aspects of self-overlap with one another or distinct from one another (Linville, 1987; Showers, Abramson, & Hogan, 1998).
Self-verification - this concept represents individuals as goal directed and motivated to construct a personal view of them-selves. Individuals construct their social identity throw the interaction with others in order to validate their self-identity status (Schlenker, 1982; Swann, 1983; Swann, Polzer, Seyle, & Ko, 2004).
Organizational research using social psychologies approaches - this concept examines different work identities, as a result of many researches based on this concept was stated that identities of individuals could operate independently from one another, because of the multiple social tasks, which individual performed (Anteby & Wrzesniewski, 2014; Chattopadhyay & George, 2005).
Thus, in this work multiple identities will be examined throw the concept of cultural mosaic (Chao & Moon, 2005), and social psychological perspective: social identity theory (Ramarajan, 2014).
1.3 De-identification and identity incompatibility
One of the other individual's reaction for treating his cultural identity is disidentification or cultural homelessness (in this case ethnic trait of individual involved in a concept of culture, because it impacts on individual's traditions, customs, beliefs, moral principles, model of behavior, etc.). There are plenty of research focuses on disidentification as a reaction to ethnic discrimination (Jasinskaja-Lahti, Liebkind & Solheim, 2008; Yip, 2015). De-identification and cultural homelessness could be result of multiple culture identity status (Hoersting & Jenkins, 2011; Navarrete & Jenkins, 1999) in case of individual's migration as a change of sociocultural context (Verkuyten & Yildiz, 2007; Wiley, 2012). De-identification as a possible reaction to change of sociocultural context would be used to enlarge the study area.
Another significant concept in a framework of this study is identity incompatibility, individuals may have different identities in which their traits could be opposite to each other, which influence on their psychological well-being (Abu-Rayya, 2006; Hirsh & Kang, 2016).
1.4 Multiple identity and psychological well-being
Multiple identity correlates with psychological well-being of individuals, thus, to ensure the high level of psychological well-being, negative pressure of self-identification problems, especially identity incomparability should be uncultivated (Brook, Garcia & Fleming, 2008; Campbell, Trapnell, Heine, Katz, Lavallee & Lehman, 1996). Another strong evidence of tight connection between identity and psychological well-being performed in the study by Peggy A. Thoits (1983). In this research, author shows the importance of identity connection to well-being as a result she claimed that loss of identity could be more harmful for person than the social isolation. Strong basic of social identity help individual to fight stress and find coping strategies (Sharma & Sharma, 2010). Self-identity correlates with satisfaction of life and self-esteem of individuals, which are the components of psychological well-being. (Pirutinsky & Mancuso 2011). Thus, we could state that identity related with well-being, and acquiring strong identity basic is important for individual to hold high level of psychological well-being and maintain the high level of life quality. Moreover, well-being concept additionally to tradition research aspect such as life-satisfaction and self-esteem also involves self-efficacy (Kahneman & Riis, 2005).
Each culture has inherent norms, values and institutions (Hofstede, 1980). Cultural distance - degree in which these norms, values and institutions differs. Cultural distance often considers as difference between different cultures, but in reality, even representatives of one culture could have cultural difference between each other. In case of cultural distance in a framework of one culture, differences between individuals could be aroused by social status, level of education, political views, etc., in this case could be used term - perceptional cultural distance. Perceptional cultural distance is the way of how an individual or a group of people differs themselves from another individual or a group of the same culture, simplest example is tendency of wealth people distance oneself from poor people. Enlarging of perceptional power distance, often could be result of changing of sociocultural context.
1.5 Sociocultural distance, multiple identities and psychological well-being
Social distance - “The perceived distance between social strata (different socio-economic, racial, or ethnic groups), usually measured by the amount of social contact between groups (Obst & White, 2005)”. Concepts of perceptional cultural distance and social distance are close, because they could be used to describe how people from one social group differ from another social group. Cultural distance is the distance between representatives of different cultures, in general Taiwanese and Chinese are representatives of one culture, however there is slight “cultural gap”. Due to sociocultural context of the research topic we should investigate both “social gap” and “cultural gap” between Taiwan's Chinese and Taiwanese and China mainlanders.
In this study we combine two concepts: social distance (Bogdarus, 1933) and cultural distance (Suanet & van de Vijver, 2009). Thus, sociocultural context on Taiwan which formed in a 70 year of separate development from Mainland China, has formed social distance between islanders and mainlanders, moreover in 70 years slight cultural changes appeared as a result cultural distance slightly increase too. To measure level of influence social distance and cultural distance on multiple identity in relation with psychological well-being we should use the concept of sociocultural distance.
To sum up, most of the studies related to multiple identity status and its influence on psychological well-being concentrates on cultural distance (Brook, Garcia & Fleming, 2008; Campbell, Trapnell, Heine, Katz, Lavallee & Lehman, 1996), in this study in which actual cultural distance between Chinese and Taiwanese consider to be low, but the differences in social, economic, political and other aspects of life in this two social groups, creates significant background for perceptional cultural distance, which also impact on psychological well-being of Taiwanese and Chinese people in a form of sociocultural gap.
1.6 Sociocultural context of Taiwan problem
The great importance in this study plays sociocultural context, the problem of Taiwan independence from mainland China - is one of the most interesting cases of separatism in a world history and international affairs practice. To understand the sociocultural context there is necessity of digging in history of the conflict, moreover political and economic aspects of Taiwan independence problem, play significant role in existing cultural distance between Taiwanese and Chinese as well as forming their identities.
After Xinhai revolution in China, two centers of power were crated: The Kuomintang (KMT) - Conservative Republican Party led by Chang Kai-Shek and the Communist Party of China (CPC), led by Mao Zedong. Different views on future political and economic development of China between this two parties lead to a civil war. By the April of 1949 CPC forces ousted KMT to the south-east of the country, the loss of civil war by KMT was inventible thus with the help of USA, KMT government was evacuated on Taiwan. There is a significant point that should be mentioned, after Xinhai revolution in 1911, and stated of Chinese Republic, KMT was official government, after evacuation on Taiwan, Taipei - capital city of Taiwan was proclaimed temporal capital of Chinese Republic (CR), and the KMT forces do not renounce legal rights on mainland China, at the same time 1 October 1949 CPC announced of emergence of People's Republic of China (PRC). Both CR and PRC proclaimed that only they have full legitimate rights to be the Chinese government. Main goal of CR was accumulating forces and change the Beijing's regime, and the main goal of PRC was eliminating lefts of KMT and CR itself. From 1949 to 1981 mainland China try to use military forces and political pressure to join Taiwan, however CR created military alliance with USA and defend their position at the global political arena. The situation changed after 1981, CPC made a reunion offer to KMT and start the long negotiations that continue today.
The approach of mainland China is strict: they consider Taiwan as a part of CPR. However political situation on Taiwan is more diverse. Taiwan or Republic of China has more than 80 political parties, but there is 2 largest: Kuomintang (KMT) and Democratic Progressive Party (DPP). In general, the main differences between 2 parties is the perception of mainland China. DPP stands for Taiwan full independence from CPR, but KMT who firstly want to return power over the whole China and fight against CPC, must collaborate with CPC in order to not let the DPP promote their independence policy.
The most interesting thing that Taiwan's public ethnic diversity: 95% of population are ethnically Chinese people, and only 5% are natives of Taiwan and others. Taking into consideration that one generation of people is approximately 25 years, and the majority of Taiwan population is ethnically Chinese people, after 70-ty years of conflict self-identification attitude of people living in this territory changed from Chinese to Taiwanese in a 3 generation.
One of the pillars of this work is hypotheses that 3 generation in Taiwan has different self-identification background that influence on their well-being and political views. The majority of 1st generation, which were evacuated from mainland China, consider themselves as Chinese, have small actual cultural distance with Chinese and small perceptional cultural distance with Chinese , the majority of 2nd provides multiple ethnical identity status Chinese and Taiwanese, have small actual cultural distance with Chinese and medium perceptional cultural distance with Chinese, and the majority of 3rd generation see themselves as Taiwanese, have medium actual cultural distance with Chinese and large perceptional cultural distance. This diversity could explain attitude towards political parties in Taiwan: representatives of 1st and part of 2nd generation could support KMT and their desire of collaborative future with CPR, on the contrary 3rd and the other part of 2nd generation support DPP and their independence policy.
2. Methods
2.1 Sample
Research sample contain 171 participants. 50 Taiwan's citizens which age between 60 and 100 years (Generation 3), 56 Taiwan's citizens which age between 35 and 60 years (Generation 2) and 65 Taiwan's citizens which age between 18 and 35 years(Generation 1). Gender separation is 86 males and 85 females, minimum age 18, maximum age 94, average 43,6. Income separation is 65 respondents - high income, 82 - average income, 23 - low income, 1 - very low income. Education separation is 137 - higher education, 28 - specialized secondary education, 6 - secondary education. Religion separation is 109 - no religion, 57 - Buddhism, 4 - Christianity, 1 - other.
2.2 Research design
For collecting data quantitative methods was used. The scheme of the research contains controlled variable (Generation), depended variables (Chinese Identity; Taiwanese Identity; Material cultural distance; Inward cultural distance; Interpersonal relations cultural distance; Social interactions cultural distance; De-Identification; Incompatibility of identities; Life Satisfaction; Self-esteem; Self-Efficacy).
Further surveys used for collecting data, they were translated and adopted for Taiwanese audience (checked by reverse translation):
· Chinese and Taiwanese identities was measured throw MIRIPS Web-source MIRIPS: https://www.victoria.ac.nz/cacr/research/mirips translated into Chinese and adapted for use in Taiwan. Chinese identity (7 items, for example, `I am proud to be Chinese'; Cronbach's б>.96). Taiwan identity (6 items, for example, `I am happy to be a Taiwanese'; Cronbach's б>.98). Answers are measured according to 5-point scale (1-absolutely disagree; 5-absolutely agree).
· Cultural Distance - (Suanet & van de Vijver, 2009) This questionnaire shows is there `cultural distance' (CD) between Taiwanese and Chinese person, it was translated into Chinese and adapted for use in Taiwan (13 items, for example, `How similar or different in China and Taiwan are the following indicators: traditions and customs'). Answers are measured according to 5-point scale (1-very different; 5-very similar). During the study, significant differences in answers to the specific types of questions was established, thus this scale was divided into 4 subscales: Material CD (2 items, for example, `How similar or different in China and Taiwan are the following indicators: meal procedure'; Cronbach's б>.64); Inward CD (3 items, for example, `How similar or different in China and Taiwan are the following indicators: religion'; Cronbach's б>.74); Interpersonal relationships CD (4 items, for example, `How similar or different in China and Taiwan are the following indicators: parenting'; Cronbach's б>.88); Social interactions CD (4 items, for example, `How similar or different in China and Taiwan are the following indicators: social norms'; Cronbach's б>.77). Answers are measured according to 5-point scale (1-very different; 5-very similar), thus the higher respondent's answer on each scale the lower cultural distance and vice versa.
· De-identification - (Verkuyten & Yildiz, 2007). This questionnaire shows person's de-identification, it was translated into Chinese and adapted for use in Taiwan (5 item, for example, `I don't feel myself Chinese'; Cronbach's б>.92). Answers are measured according to 5-point scale (1-absolutely disagree; 5-absolutely agree).
· Incompatibility of identities - (Verkuyten & Martinovic, 2012). This questionnaire shows incompatibility of identities of person, it was translated into Chinese and adapted for use in Taiwan (1 item, `Please indicate to what extent do you feel that it is incompatible to be a Taiwanese and a Chinese?'). Answer is measured according to 5-point scale (1-totally compatible; 5-totally incompatible).
· Life satisfaction - (Diener, Emmons, Larson, & Griffin, 1985). This questionnaire shows life satisfaction of a person, it was translated into Chinese and adapted for use in Taiwan (4 items, for example, `I think I have good qualities'; Cronbach's б>.93). Answers are measured according to 5-point scale (1-totally wrong; 5-totally right).
· Self-esteem - (Rosenberg, 1965). This questionnaire shows self-esteem of a person, it was translated into Chinese and adapted for use in Taiwan (4 items, for example, `I'm satisfied with my life'; Cronbach's б>.89). Answers are measured according to 5-point scale (1-totally wrong; 5-totally right).
· General Self-Efficacy Scale - (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). This questionnaire is a self-report measure of Self-Efficacy, it was translated into Chinese and adapted for use in Taiwan (10 items, for example, `I usually hold situation under control'; Cronbach's б>.93) Answers are measured according to 4-point scale (1-totally wrong; 4-totally right).
The procedure of research was conducted via internet throw online surveys. To analyze data MANOVA and SEM methods was used.
3. Results
3.1 Generation differences
Descriptive statistics of all variables represented at the Appendix Table 4. Comparative analysis of variables using MANOVA, with Generation as independent variable and Chinese Identity; Taiwanese Identity; Material cultural distance; Inward cultural distance; Interpersonal relations cultural distance; Social interactions cultural distance; De-Identification; Incompatibility of identities; Life Satisfaction; Self-Esteem; Self-Efficacy as dependent variables showed a significant multivariate effect among 3 generation of Taiwanese: Wilks's Л=.168, F(22, 316)=20.675, p=.000, зІ=.590. ANOVA's on the individual measures were also significant represented at the Table 5.
Table 5. Comparison of Chinese/Taiwan Identities, De-identification, Incompatibility of identities, 4 types of cultural distance, Life Satisfaction, Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy of 3 generation of Taiwan citizens.
|
Variables |
Mean Generation 3 (18-35y.o.) |
Mean Generation 2 (35-60y.o) |
Mean Generation 1 (60+ y.o.) |
||||
|
Mean |
F |
Partial зІ |
|||||
|
Chinese identity |
3.43 |
2.34a |
3.58b |
4.67c |
101.237 |
.547*** |
|
|
Taiwan identity |
4.67 |
4.66a |
4.55a |
4.81b |
2.970 |
.034 |
|
|
De-identification |
2.63 |
3.56a |
2.62b |
1.43c |
127.678 |
.603*** |
|
|
Incompatibility of identities |
2.94 |
4.06a |
3.20b |
1.18c |
183.561 |
.686*** |
|
|
Material cultural distance |
3.16 |
2.69a |
3.01b |
3.95c |
94.321 |
.529*** |
|
|
Inward cultural distance |
3.71 |
3.45a |
3.60a |
4.19b |
32.520 |
.279*** |
|
|
Interpersonal relations cultural distance |
2.18 |
1.85a |
2.06a |
2.74b |
37.269 |
.307*** |
|
|
Social interactions cultural distance |
1.84 |
1.64a |
1.79a |
2.15b |
13.695 |
.140*** |
|
|
Life Satisfaction |
4.23 |
4.37a |
4.03b |
4.28a |
7.864 |
.086** |
|
|
Self-Esteem |
4.14 |
4.29a |
3.88b |
4.28a |
7.971 |
.087*** |
|
|
Self-Efficacy |
3.95 |
4.15a |
3.72b |
3.96ab |
8.334 |
.090*** |
Note: Means with different subscripts are significantly different in Least Significant Differences post hoc tests (p < .05). **p < .01
According to MANOVA analyses of data using hypotheses of this research we can state that:
Mean value of Chinese identity among all generations is 3.43, however all 3 generations significantly differ: 1st Gen. (4.67); 2nd Gen. (3.58); 3rd Gen (2.34).
Mean value of Taiwan identity among all generation is 4.67, 2nd (4.55) and 3rd (4.66) generations do not differ significantly, on the other hand 1st generation (4.81) has highest level of Taiwan identity and differs significantly from other two generations.
De-identification index shows mean value among all 3 groups - 2.63, all generations differ significantly 1st (1.43); 2nd (2.62); 3rd (3.56).
Incompatability of identities' mean value among all groups is 2.94, all generations differ significantly 1st (1.18); 2nd (3.20); 3rd (4.06).
Aspects of cultural distance (CD) (the higher the index of cultural distance the lower actual cultural differences):
Material CD's mean value among all groups - 3.16, generations differ significantly: 1st (3.95); 2nd (3.01); 3rd (2.69).
Inward CD's mean value among all groups - 3.71, 3rd and 2nd generations have no significant differences, but 1st differs: 1st (3.60); 2nd (3.60); 3rd (4.19).
Interpersonal relations CD's mean value among all groups - 2.18, there are no significant differences between 2nd (2.06) and 3rd (1.85) generations, however 1st (2.74) generation differs significantly.
Social interactions CD's mean value among all groups - 1.84, there are no significant differences between 2nd (1.79) and 3rd (1.64) generations, however 1st (2.15) generation differs significantly.
Mean value of Life Satisfaction among all groups is 4.23, there are no significant differences between 1st (4.28) and 3rd (4.37) generations, however 2nd (4.03) generation differs significantly.
Mean value of Self-Esteem among all groups is 4.14, there are no significant differences between 1st (4.28) and 3rd (4.29) generations, however 2nd (3.88) generation differs significantly.
Mean value of Self-Efficacy among all groups is 3.95, there are no significant differences between 1st (3.96) and 3rd (4.15) generations, as well as, between 2nd (3.72) and 3rd (4.15), however 1st (4.15) and 2nd (3.72) generations differ significantly.
Further we were looking at correlations between variables (Table 6.). According to correlation matrix we can state that:
Chinese Identity has significant positive correlations with Material CD (.754**), Inward CD (.706**), Interpersonal relations CD (.677**) and Social interactions (.598**). As well as significant negative correlations with De-identification (-.925**), Incompatibility of identities (-.870**), Life Satisfaction (-.162*) and Self-Efficacy (-.205**).
Taiwanese identity has significant positive correlations with Self-Esteem (.199**) and Self-Efficacy (.196*). As well as significant negative correlations with Interpersonal relations CD (-.298**) and Social interactions CD (-.343**).
De-identification index has significant positive correlations with Incompatibility of identities (.874**) and Self-Efficacy. As well as significant negative correlations with Material CD (-.781**), Inward CD (-.683**), Interpersonal relations CD (-.714**) and Social interactions CD (-.593**).
Incompatability of identities has significant negative correlations with Material CD (-.781**), Inward CD (-.699**), Interpersonal relations CD (-.685**) and Social interactions CD (-.568**).
Material CD has significant positive correlations with Inward CD (.722**), Interpersonal relations CD (.760**) and Social interactions CD (.651**).
Inward CD has significant positive correlations with Interpersonal relations CD (.586**) and Social interactions CD (.534**).
Interpersonal relations CD has significant positive correlation with Social interactions CD (.773**).
Life Satisfaction has significant positive correlations with Self-Esteem (.824**) and Self-Efficacy (.802**).
Self-Esteem has significant positive correlations with Self-Efficacy (.821**).
3.2 Structural modeling (SEM)
We performed SEM analyses according to the model (Table 7.) We tested 4 models (Table 9; Table 10; Table 11; Table 12.) in which every aspect of cultural differences served as mediator in order to look for indirect impact of Chinese/Taiwanese identities, De-identification and Incompatibility of identities with mediating role of aspects of cultural distance on Life Satisfaction , Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy. We also controlled the effect of generation. Fit indexes presented in the Table 8.
Table 7. SEM model
Table 8. Fit Indices of the Path Models of the role of Aspect of Cultural Distance as mediator between Chinese/Taiwanese identities, De-identification, Incompatibility of identities and Well-Being, Self-Efficacy.
|
ч2/df |
CFI |
SRMR |
RMSEA |
PCLOSE |
||
|
1. Material cultural distance |
3.3 |
.997 |
.0250 |
.086 |
.152 |
|
|
2. Inward cultural distance |
3.3 |
.997 |
.0267 |
.086 |
.152 |
|
|
3. Interpersonal relations cultural distance |
3.3 |
.997 |
.0252 |
0.86 |
.152 |
|
|
4. Social interactions cultural distance |
3.3 |
.997 |
.0255 |
0.86 |
.152 |
Table 9. SEM model #1 with Material cultural distance as mediator.
*Only the significant regression coefficients in figures is indicated.
Table 10. SEM model #2 with Inward cultural distance as mediator.
*Only the significant regression coefficients in figures is indicated.
Table 11. SEM model #3 with Interpersonal relations cultural distance as mediator.
*Only the significant regression coefficients in figures is indicated.
Table 12. SEM model #4 with Social interactions cultural distance as mediator.
*Only the significant regression coefficients in figures is indicated.
Since the basic structural relationships of all models coincided, we first describe the general results for the four models.
The results showed that the older the generation, the higher its Chinese identity. However, we identified a negative generation effect on de-identification and identity incompatibility: the younger the generation, the higher the de-identification and the higher the incompatibility of identity. The effect of generation on Taiwanese identity was positive, but insignificant.
We also found that Chinese identity was negatively related to life satisfaction, self-esteem and self-efficacy (all relationships were significant), while Taiwanese identity, by contrast, was positively associated with life satisfaction, self-esteem and self-efficacy (relationships were significant for self-esteem and self-efficacy, and at the trend level for life satisfaction).
We did not reveal significant relationships between de-identification and identity incompatibility with psychological well-being and self-efficacy. The effect of generation was negative on psychological well-being and self-efficacy, but not significant.
In addition, we have identified positive correlations between psychological well-being and self-efficacy. We also found significant negative correlations between identity incompatibility and Chinese identity, de-identification and Chinese identity. We found significant positive correlations between de-identification and identity incompatibility.
Next, we present the role of various types of cultural distance in the relationship of identities and psychological well-being and self-efficacy with control of generation.
The incompatibility of identity and de-identification was negatively related to material cultural distance. Material cultural distance was positively associated with life satisfaction. We found that material cultural distance takes role of mediator (full mediation) between incompatibility of identities, de-identification and life satisfaction (в=-,087, p=.05; в=-,087, p=.05).
We also found that, the generation had the negative effect on inward cultural distance. The incompatibility of identity was negatively related to inward cultural distance. Inward cultural distance was positively associated with life satisfaction and self-efficacy. Inward cultural distance plays role of mediator between incompatibility of identities and life satisfaction (в=-.117, p=.05), as well as between incompatibility of identities and self-efficacy (в=-,087, p=.05). Mediation effect of Inward cultural distance in relation between generation and life satisfaction, self-efficacy is not significant.
The results of the study showed that Taiwanese identity, the incompatibility of identity and de-identification were negatively related to interpersonal relations cultural distance. However, this distance did not predict psychological well-being and self-efficacy.
We found that generation had the negative effect on social interactions cultural distance. Taiwanese identity and the incompatibility of identity were negatively related to social interactions cultural distance. However, this distance did not predict psychological well-being and self-efficacy.
4. Discussion and Conclusion
In this study, we analyzed identity status of Taiwan's citizens and its impact on psychological well-being (life-satisfaction, self-esteem) and self-efficacy. We are considering the perceptional cultural distance formed by sociocultural context, during the study we outline 4 aspects of cultural distance (Material cultural distance; Inward cultural distance; Interpersonal relations cultural distance; Social interactions cultural distance.) in which Taiwan citizens have noticeable tendencies of the level of cultural distance, working as mediator between Chinese/Taiwanese identities, De-identification, Incompatability of identities and Well-Being (Life-Satisfaction, Self-Esteem), Self-Efficacy (Table 7.). Another significant basic of present research is assumption of existence of 3 different generations of Taiwan's citizens (1st - 60+ years old; 2nd - 35-60 years old; 3rd - 18-35 years old) which has significant differences in their identity status and level of perceptional cultural distance which influence their psychological well-being(Table 4.). Age of respondents ranged from 18 to 94 (N=171).
The results of our research show that importance of Chinese or Taiwanese identities and sociocultural distance with mainlanders of China predicts psychological well-being and self-efficacy of 3 generations of Taiwan's citizens. There are 3 different generation of Taiwan's citizens which have significant differences in research indicators (Table 5.). Almost every respondent shows high level of Taiwanese identity no matter of age and affiliation to a generation, however Chinese identity level decrease from 1st to 3rd generation, this means the younger the representative in this group the more he tends to identify himself as Taiwanese only this facts confirms 1.1 hypotheses but rejects 1.2 hypotheses. The level of de-identification and incompatibility of identities increase in each generation from 1st to 3rd (Table 5.), this fact approves our 1.3 and 1.4 hypotheses, however psychological well-being and self-efficacy do not increase in each generation from 1st to 3rd which rejects our 1.5 hypotheses. We can state that high importance of Taiwanese identity positively influences on self-esteem and self-efficacy of respondents, however Chinese identity tend to put negative impact on psychological well-being and self-efficacy of residents of Taiwan which confirms 2nd and 3rd hypotheses of our research. Sociocultural distance was divided into 4 aspects, in which we can outline major tendencies, all 3 generations of Taiwan's citizens have low sociocultural distance in Material and Inward aspects, which whatever identity status have respondents has non or minimum negative impact on their psychological well-being and self-efficacy. On the other hand, interpersonal relations and social interaction aspects, are those in which Taiwan's citizens has high sociocultural distance, this in case of high importance of Chinese identity and low importance of Taiwanese identity tend to negatively impact on psychological well-being and self-efficacy (Brook, Garcia & Fleming, 2008; Campbell, Trapnell, Heine, Katz, Lavallee & Lehman, 1996; Kahneman & Riis, 2005).
We found strong correlations between sociocultural distance and de-identification and identity incompatibility (Table 6.), however, due to our 4th and 5th hypotheses, which consider that de-identification and incompatibility of identities positively correlates with aspects of cultural distance and negatively correlates with psychological well-being and self-efficacy, are not confirmed. (Verkuyten & Yildiz, 2007; Wiley, 2012; Abu-Rayya, 2006; Hirsh & Kang, 2016). De-identification and Identity incompatibility indexes show that 1st generation tend to identify themselves as both Chinese and Taiwanese and think that it's totally possible to be both at the same time; the same for 2nd generation, but the importance of Chinese identity for them is lower than for 1st generation, however, 2nd generation has higher rates in incompatibility of identities index than 1st generation, which means that they are less confident in possibility of being both Taiwanese and Chinese at the same time; 3rd generation shows high importance of Taiwanese identity and low importance of Chinese identity, and confident that it's impossible to be Taiwanese and Chinese at the same time (Table 5.). Aspects of cultural distance shows us that every generation think that in Inward and Material cultural distance aspect Taiwanese and Chinese are relatively similar, but in Social interactions and Interpersonal relations cultural distance aspect are different (Table 5.). The lowest cultural level of cultural distance is in Inward aspect, all 3 generation has almost similar rates. In other aspects generations has difference in rates of cultural distance but always following logic that the older the respondent the lower cultural distance he has in comparison with the average in all groups. The relatively lower level of cultural distance groups shows in Material aspect; however, all 3 generations differs significantly (Table 5.). The highest levels of cultural distance are in Social interactions and Interpersonal relations, at the same time in these aspects, 2nd and 3rd generation close to each other 1st differs significantly (Table 5.). In Life-Satisfaction, Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy 1st and 3rd generation close to each other and have relatively high rates, on the other hand 2nd generation has lowest rates in psychological well-being and self-efficacy.
We may see that all 3 generation have similar level of cultural distance in Inward cultural distance; totally different level of cultural distance in Material cultural distance; 3rd and 2nd generations has no significant differences in Interpersonal cultural distance and Social interaction cultural distance, but they differ from level of cultural distance of 1st generation in same aspects. However, there is straight proportion between cultural distance and generations. The older the person the less cultural distance level in each aspect he has, the younger the person the larger cultural distance in each aspect. Furthermore we may see that representative of 2nd generation (35-60 y.o.) has lowest level of psychological well-being and Self-Efficacy it could be related with level of uncertainty about their identity in both scales de-identification and incompatibility of identities, this generation show average level, this means that they have no tough position about possibility of being Chinese and Taiwanese at the same time they have high importance of Taiwanese identity and larger than average level of importance of Chinese identity, this uncertainty decrease their level of psychological well-being and self-efficacy. On the other hand, 1st generation's (60+ y.o.) representatives has low level of de-identification and incompatibility of identities which means that they supposed that it is completely possible to be Chinese and Taiwanese at the same time and do have high value of both that identities, which allow them to feel comfortable having 2 identities at the same time. 3rd generation's (18-35 y.o.) representatives has high level of de-identification and incompatibility of identities which means that they supposed that it is impossible to be Chinese and Taiwanese at the same time they do have high importance of Taiwanese identity and low importance of Chinese identities, this allow them to feel themselves comfortable identifying as Taiwanese. In general, all generation has high level of Taiwanese identity and no significant differences between each other, contrariwise Chinese identity importance straightly decrease from 1st generation to 3rd generation.
We also manage to find that material cultural distance takes role of mediator between incompatibility of identities, de-identification and life satisfaction. Inward cultural distance plays role of mediator between incompatibility of identities and life satisfaction, as well as between incompatibility of identities and self-efficacy. Material and Inward cultural distance are those aspects in which Chinese and Taiwanese relatively close to each other, thus working as mediator between de-identification/incompatibility of identities and life satisfaction/self-efficacy it puts negative effect on the last ones. Afterall, we found that identity status (Chinese or Taiwanese) directly influence psychological well-being and self-efficacy, but de-identification and incompatibility of identities has indirect influence on psychological well-being and self-efficacy through material and inward cultural distance as mediators.
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