Staffing the primary public schools in rural areas in two areas: the case of Shan state and Bago division (2011-2018)

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Staffing the primary public schools in rural areas in two areas: the case of Shan state and Bago division (2011-2018)

Hein Ko Ko Lin

Introduction

Myanmar is located in Asia, bordering with China, Laos, Thailand, India, and Bangladesh. Although Myanmar got independence from the British in 1948, it has been still developing the country with a low economic situation and less developed country compared to the neighboring countries. According to Mahatma Gandhi, education is the basic tool for the development of consciousness and the reconstitution of society. Therefore, Myanmar needs to launch and focus on the implementation education system. According to Hayden and Martin (2013), many issues in Myanmar are relating to Myanmar education. However, the military rule was intentionally undervalued in the education system, which demoted the country to an inferior status. The education system was fraught with many issues. For instance, the reduced salary of teachers, dwindling teacher professionalism as the teacher center approached (TCA), fee-based private tuitions system, insufficient teaching aids, and the unsuitable student-teacher ratio with large classroom size and so on. Therefore, Myanmar education let other neighboring countries; the Association of Southeast Asia Nations (ASEAN).

Education in Myanmar is not improving due to the complications arising in the national education system. This condition has been influenced by the lack of full implementation of the set education policy goals that have been formulated by the national government in order to match up with the universal primary education standards.

After independence, Myanmar faced many challenges in the public sector. However, the government focused more on the national economy, specifically the transport sector, the agricultural sector, and the security sector. With that, the fundamental education law in Myanmar has been reformed thrice since 1973, and 2010 saw the president launch new education policies and curriculum, which was associated with Myanmar's democratic transition period.

Between 2011 and 2015, Myanmar initiated vital plans and switched to the democratic system of governance, which gave rise to the amendment of all other sectors, including education policy. However, the government encountered many challenges that led to the poor performance of the national education policy, especially in the primary sector.

Problem Statement decentralization education myanmar

An increase in the demand of teachers due to the high pupil enrolment in primary school has led to a decrease in the number of teachers and the newly rolled-out education system.

According to these issues in the education sector, I am going to find out the teacher's perspectives due to a lack of support from the government agenda-setting and outdated education policy in Myanmar. For all of these conditions, this paper is focusing on the lack of qualified teachers in public schools, primarily in rural areas where they need to complete the education system.

According to the World Bank (CEIC) Central Statistical Organization, the enrolment of primary students in both rural and urban areas has increased, and trained teachers in these areas decreased from 2010 to 2018. Compared with the two regions, Shan State and Bago Division have a similar situation during this time. Even the Primary Student enrolment rises yearly in rural areas, and the drop-out rate is also increasing yearly; consequently, the newly qualified teachers for rural areas do not appear. Furthermore, according to the World meters in 2019, the population was rapidly increased from 50.60 million in 2010 to 53.71 million in 2018. Children from Shan State want to study; however, government infrastructure cannot support these places in case the nearest school is a 4-5 hours walk through dense jungle, the teachers and staff from the government school does not speak the national language. Therefore, some organizations like United World Schools (UWSs) support and try for these regions since 2013.

I used documents from the government, international academic articles and reports, research articles, and personal knowledge. I also identified some issues such as low salaries, inequalities in wages and salaries, living standard, variations in students- teachers' ratio, inadequate facilities (transfer system, transpiration, and communication, security, language barriers, low government investment, acid, and healthcare assistants). They are significant challenges in private schools' teachers (different income money). Based on these statements, I want to analyze tasks and find out a suitable policy for the deficiency of primary education teachers in rural areas. For the educated person, students need qualified teachers because teachers are the most critical part of the students. This paper intends to find out the solution, the main problem of the deficiency of primary education qualified teachers from public schools in remote rural areas in Myanmar. From those problems, I am going to find out the suitable strategies and support for the government's national education policy.

Research Question

What measures can be taken by the government to deal with the deficiency of teachers in Shan State and Bago Division?

Research Goal

To make recommendations on best possible solutions on deficiency of teachers in Shan State and Bago Division by conducting interviews with teachers in the region and an education policy expert in order to get their opinion and possible solutions.

Research Tasks

* Analyzing the data from the Ministry of Education.

* Analyzing different policies for teachers in public schools.

* Interviewing local teachers and officials from the government institutions.

* Reviews from scholar articles, research papers from INGO, NGO, and UN's organizations.

* Comparing policies with regional countries policies.

I compare these two regions, Shan State and Bago Division because the population of both regions is quite similar except the geographical location, transportation and security. Shan State is a hilly region and bigger than Bago region and this is why the research compares the two regions.

The number of the teachers and students ratio is not different in both rural areas. The Burmese nation is the major population of the country living in Bago, and the major ethnic group (Shan nation) living in Shan State. The ratio of the rural and urban is almost similar in both regions. For these reasons, Shan State and Bago Division are compared in the research.

Shan State is the upper part of Myanmar and the largest area of the country where most people are farmers. The population of the region is 5.82 million; according to 2014 Census Data. Average 20% of the population lives in urban areas, and the remaining 80% in rural areas. In Bago the population is 4.85 million and it is the junction town of the country, close to Yangon (the economical capital city/ second capital city of Myanmar) and it is a little developed compared with other regions. It is also a landlocked region. The capital city is Bago and 17% of the population lives in urban areas, and the remaining 83% in rural areas (Myanmar, 2018).

Theoretical Framework

The Policy Cycle Theory will be used for analysis because it fits the research problem and can suggest alternative solutions. This research focuses on the education policy implementation processes including with what policies implement and how to support on the teachers' deficiency in the primary schools level in Myanmar.

Method

Primary data from interviews and secondary data collected from the Ministry of Education in Myanmar, Ministry of Defense, department of border affairs, Volunteer organizations in Myanmar, Interviews (Skype, video call interview with local teachers: Eastern part of Shan State and Bago Division, and data collection from the officials currently serving in the Minister of Education). Publications, online sources such as government official reports, journals, and international organization reports will also be used. I used the mixed methods approach for my research paper.

Thesis Structure

This paper will be structured into three chapters:

Chapter one presents the general theoretic literature about education policy and reform policy and theoretical framework. These are directly connected to the deficiency of qualified teachers in the education sector and teacher education with the policy implementation of teachers in the education reform process in Myanmar using the policy cycle theory. An analysis of the teachers' training school policy in Myanmar carried out using statistical analysis drawn from 2011 to 2018 will also be used.

Chapter two will discuss the background history of Myanmar Education, Myanmar's education system, and structure and effects before 2010 and after 2010 emphasizing the education structure. Furthermore, this chapter was discussed about the issues of the teachers' deficiencies, and the teacher training program.

Chapter three will focus on the analysis of the interviews conducted and an analysis of secondary data using the policy cycle framework and focus on policy implementation processes. It will also include research findings, recommendations, and conclusions.

1. Literature Review and Theoretical Framework

"A preliminary assessment of decentralization in Education - experience in Mon State and Yangon Region'' by Brooke Zobrist and Patrick McCormick, illustrated that educational decentralization processes collects data from the two regions where have related issues between national policies and changes in local governance (Brooke Zobrist, 2013, p. 3). Furthermore, he compared with the conflict areas and the central economic township of the country: Mon State and Yangon Region.

Authors pointed out the government's reform agenda is the main key of the decentralization process and devolution on local governance. In Myanmar, decentralization is a priority in the educational reforming processes between the central government and the local. In the country, the rural areas are looking like the ceasefire areas such as Mon, Shan and Rakhine states. There has been no ceasefire agreement with the government therefore the devolution processes are gaping between the central and state. The local government gets some allowances from the government due to the members of Parliament from the state but not fully decentralized on the education sector. In Myanmar, the MoE is the second largest ministry after the Ministry of Defense (STARR, 2018).

If the education reduced by the decentralization and devolved to the local or state government, the basic education sector could be promoted. According to the result, the ministry of education has reduced the centralization processes but not clearly and limited by the central government. Decentralization is not clear and the local level does not have decision-making authority. The central government did not given a clear policy and devolution to the locals. Therefore, the local government, in the other ethnic districts lacks autonomy on education due to the language barrier and cease-fire within the nations. In the view of the research, due to the cease-fire in the rural areas, the teachers lost their security and their livelihood during the posting period. The conflict and the education is related to the development of the rural areas. Centralization can cause the tension between the government and the rebels, in fact, the teachers cannot be safe in those areas and that will be the lack of teachers in the primary schools.

The parliament system started in 2011 therefore the decentralization and devolution of power impact to the state-level ministers. In this system, the state-level ministers can bring and report their need for the education sector due the reinvigoration of the new constitution of decentralization of state-level governance, however, the budgets and decision-making power is not fully getting to the state parliaments. The decentralization project was approved by the national Hluttaw (Parliament) there is no clear policy what these responsibilities and state-power will be. In the basic education sector, the private and monastic schools lack form the government and they have been split from the Ministry of Education means that decision-making and budgeting authority is not completely relevant with the administration. These schools appeared due to the lack of the inquiry of the basic education and the requirement of the teachers in the primary schools.

The government stated the decentralization is the key strategy of the education reforming processes. According to the Framework for Economic and Social Reform (FERS), it has been released in December 2012. In the national planning document which has mostly applying on the basic education sector by giving the central to the local government with devolution except giving to the low-levels of administrators' decision-making authority.

In 2012, the government allowed and enacted the private schools law with the government schools' syllabus to enhance the basic education. The monastic school has been managed under the Ministry of Religious. The data from Myanmar were inaccurate data which had been collected by the author. Author points out in his research; the government has been doing decentralization in all sectors to get the nation reform with strategies thereby to supply democratization, management, devolution, responsibility, development on all sectors especially in the quality of education and other services. However, there have been occurring ethnic conflicts everywhere; therefore the government gives decentralization which has been limited. The author states politically, the decentralization can make the administration and governance more effective and more responsible for its actions. Alan Mounier and Phasina Tangchaung, (2010), give the example of Thailand decentralization that is great to improve for the enrolment rate situation. Thailand education has been successfully completed by the centralization in case of increasing enrolment and retention rates in rural areas. However, performing the quality of education is not suitable by using centralization (Tangchuang, 2010). In the case of Shan State in Myanmar where it has the same condition and the government needs to manage for the quality of the education. Especially in the rural areas need qualified education therefore the qualified teachers need to reach there.

The author finds in his research three points of the decentralization processes in the education sector in Myanmar; administrative, political, and financial. In administrative, based on the interviews, the term of administrative, there are the small changes, adding the Junior Assistant Teachers in 2013 due to the lack of the amount of primary teachers. The financial point of view from the interview, there was no authority at the state-level until 2012. In 2012, there was a small financial authority from the central level to the schools' principle as the school building not decision-making authority there has been restricted by the limited authority. Politically, if the regions finished the peace-keeping processes, the decentralization and devolution process could be improved and related to the educational sector.

The solution to the current education system's gaps and challenges had not been resolved. With that, the education system as of 2011 to 2015 had many problems and differences between the country system changes. Primary education reform did not have any significant impact due to the budget allocated for education. According to the World Bank, though the budget for education increased slightly from 2011 to 2015 by 5.40%, this did not reflect the expected outcome. In 2017 the budget increased by 10.16% in 2017 and 9.41% in 2019, which is adequately sustainable for the education sectors (World Bank). Due to this the implementation process has not been successful to-date, and this has not only affected the quality but of education but the infrastructures as especially in remote areas despite education policies and laws having been laid down between 2011 and 2015. 2014-2015 the government announced the Amendment of the National Education Law which was structured in accordance with the 2011 education policy guidelines (Naing, 2014). According to UNESCO the education expenditure as a percentage of GDP, Myanmar recorded the lowest percentage on education expenditure at 1.51% in 2013 as compared to other ASEAN states. This resulted in the government's efforts of upgrading the government the education sector hence the need for more expenditure in the education sector. The Child-Centered Approach (CCA) therefore calls for more qualified teachers.

According to, "Reform of the Education System: Case Study of Myanmar" (Soe, Swe, Aye & Mon, 2017) the authors point out the transition of Myanmar's democratic system in relation to Myanmar's education reform that began in 2011 when the country's government system changed from the military government (end of 2010) to the democratic system thereby making education reform as a national priority. Furthermore, the authors pointed out the education reform processes in which the increase of the education budget, publication of the new education law and the public school students' fees will be free (Mr. Min Zaw Soe, 2017). In this point, the free and compulsory education for the basic education began before 2011 however the policy was implemented for only primary education school level at the end of 2010-2011 Academic-Year.

Since Myanmar the new government came into power in 2011, scholars have been searching and analyzing education changes and reforms relevant to the country's development. "A Review of the Research Literature on Teacher Recruitment and Retention," written by Cassandra Guarino, Lucrecia Santibanez, Glenn Daley, and Dominic Brewer, (2004), focuses on teachers opportunities based on their level of education which is used to compare rural and urban schools. They provide a policy based on the evidence of efficiency on teachers' effectiveness, characteristics of schools and districts that successfully recruit and retain effective teachers, and so on. The authors provide the researchers and policymakers with related comprehensive and evaluative analysis on the deficiency of the public school teachers. The authors argue that not only the salaries but conditions as well influence the deficiency of teachers. They argued that solving these issues with more qualitative and quantitative research methods would have to support the policy makers to apply in the practical, after that, this policy would be implemented on all levels (Cassandra Guarino, 2004). Therefore, to maintain the teachers' deficiency, that is based on the strong policy come from the policy makers and it will perform the new valuable policy which is based on the research. The strong policy can influence not only recruitment and retention but also addressing the deficiency of teachers by investigating, understanding, and evaluating the education policy.

The requirement of qualified teachers in basic education schools, the author states 10,000 Assistant Junior Teachers were committed by the ministry of education in 2013-2014 Academic-Year. The students who passed the basic education, they can go and attend the Teacher's Colleges where have two years of preparation courses and after that become the qualified teachers for the state schools (Brooke Zobrist, 2013, p. 12).According to the national school statistics, 2011-2012, the number of primary schools was 28,968, the number of teachers in primary school was 182,170 that mean the average teachers in each school was 6. Furthermore, the number of students is 5,195,952 therefore; the student-teachers ratio was 28:1 (World Data on Education, 2010-11). Consideration on the education expenditure form the government, the author discuss, according to the Department of Education Training and Planning report, the total expenditure on the basic education sector was approximately $231 million (2,318,838 Kyats) in 2011-2012 academic year (1$= 1,000K in this year). According to the Minister of Finance, the total expenditure on basic education is $757 million on 2012-2013 academic-years increasingly which is 4.9% of the total government budget: On 2013-2014 Academic-Year, the total government budget had about $ 1 billion on the basic education which is more 1% increase the last year.

Jeanne Moulton states that rural development is dependent on basic education, especially in primary school and whereby over 50% of the population lives in rural, remote areas. He states that the agricultural education development is directly related to government education policy in the rural areas and thus the need to fill the number of the qualified teachers who need to support the primary students. Primary school children also have difficulties such as the distance to school which makes them walk for long distances and inadequate transportation systems which are highly priced especially in the rural areas (Moultion, 2001). Carnoy states that the individuals acquire skills, can make more productive, can make new technologies, can be effective in the modern production organizations and these skills come from schooling. As a result, these school skills/ outcomes can develop for rural development. Therefore, to develop the rural areas, students must attend the school and the skillful teachers have to be there. I agree that the point of rural development is on schooling and basically starts with the primary schools. If the people can imagine the process, they can create the new products for their regions so that to appear the students the qualified teacher requires in those areas. Poverty on the other hand makes children fallout from school. In rural areas, most parents are farmers practicing farming as a form of livelihood and in the process, the children are forced to help them in the farms.

Next, he pointed out that teacher quality which relies on the supply and demand framework of teachers. This supply and demand and conducting the empirical work focus on quality as well as recruitment and retention (Moulton, 2001, pp. 9-15). In the case of teachers in remote regions, the teachers have faced their demand thereby if the policy needs to be supplied, it will be difficult to maintain the shortage of the teachers in these areas.

The transportation difficulty de-motivates them from going to school and instead they choose to stay behind helping their parents. Even though the government is making a policy of a free and compulsory education system for the primary school age students, the students who live in the rural areas are going to pay for other costs like stationary, textbooks, school uniforms and lunch. The author points out rural area education development with two factors: the communities' perception of education on the demand-side and supply-side from the ministry of education. For the demand-side, rural area population growth is high compared to the urban hence the need for more demands. Issues that appear to be common in the country both in urban and rural areas is the issue of parents getting in touch with the educational sector to pay for their children's fees and other educational needs (Moulton, 2001, p. 10). To-date, the primary education sector demands in the rural areas still remains the same. Despite all the challenges, Myanmar's Basic Education policy is the same for the urban and rural areas and this is also influenced by the country's economic system.

The supply-side forms the government, which faces the same challenge. Here the author focuses on the teachers for instance the issue of: qualified teachers, permanent teachers, local teachers, daily-wage teachers, or volunteer teachers serving in basic education. Some teachers are willing to help because they live in these areas, some of their spouses live in remote areas, and others have transferred due to the elapse of their promotion time. Transportation difficulties and security are another reason for the lack of the teacher in the rural areas; most of the teachers in primary schools are female teachers, therefore, even when they are promoted, they leave their jobs (Moulton, 2001, p. 19). There are also issues of quality and quantity in the primary education sector whereby teachers who have not graduated end up teaching in these schools with unsuitable or inapplicable subjects that can reduce the quality of education. According to the 2019 World Population Data, the population rate is increasing yearly therefore the government's support in the basic primary education will not be fulfilled, especially in developing countries, due to the enrollment rate which increases yearly (Data, 2019). J. Moulton talks of the curriculum that is also a challenge for the rural communities since the teachers are not qualified and familiar with the new curriculum. Teachers have to cope with the incomplete education system and curriculum. Teachers rush to complete the academic year due to the new curriculum thereby deflecting the quality of students and the education system.

The successful models on rural schooling by adding the small-scale projects is a point of concern due to the bias and unbalanced education policy that is not suitable for rural school, due to language barrier, local government expenditure on the regional education sector and the management of the resources. For example, teachers do not go to rural areas where their security and transport is not guaranteed. Therefore, some teachers reject their promotion and some teachers bribe to get better opportunities. This paper supports the formation of a community-based organization that supports rural schools because it not only helps the country's education system but also supports the remote area student schooling and guiding the unqualified teachers on the right path. For example the community schools in Mali, where 60% of the students live in the rural areas, and, among them, 40% of the students are not able to access the facilities and teachers. However, the attempt to introduce a new curriculum in 1980 for the rural area to "ruralize" the curriculum in rural schools failed. In 1987, Save the Children USA (SCF) started their schools in the rural areas to promote development in community and adult literacy. They also served and trained teachers who became qualified to serve in the rural areas as native teachers and public primary teachers. SCF went on to provide a new curriculum for the primary schools which have grade 1 to grade 3 whereby they have to learn with their local language.

Primary public schools teachers lack incentive from the government policy and additional activities a good example would be Myanmar with the 2013 new centralized curriculum. The primary public teacher or national school teachers have the opportunity of attending the teacher training colleges at every level: primary, secondary, and tertiary. The salary is directly related to the teacher level who have finished the training colleges or universities. In Myanmar's Basic Education Sector, most of the teachers in primary schools have been serving for most of their life. Traditionally, they did not get any certification from any university or teacher training colleges and it is because of that that the teachers who pass from colleges end up getting higher ranks and high salaries than the teachers in Primary schools due to the new Education System.

Reviewing this paper showed to complete how to implement the policy implementation step by step. Ng Ding Jie reviews the current literature on policy analysis specifically, on education policy formulation and implementation in the Asia Education policy framework in which developed a policy framework for analysis and applies this to the formulation and implementation of education policy in Southeast Asia (Jie, 2016). I agree to show up the research problem focuses on the policy implementation in which it has been developed. This policy implementation can be imagined in Asia thereby providing not only how to recognize the national but also the international cases study of the education policy implementation step. Analyzing the policy reform, according to Ng Ding Jie, there are three models: no implementation, partial implementation, and implementation but no effect (Jie, 2016, p. 9). These models give the reform of the policy and how to implement it systematically and it indicates the government's reform policy.

In this reviewing sector, according to Scott, Warwick & Richter, the policy implementation can decide how education was started and how could focus on the significant research gap in education policy implementation in Asian/Southeast Asian countries. Therefore, reviewing this paper can analyze the education policy in Myanmar whereby starting the government agenda-setting process and heading to the implementation processes during the research time from 2011 to 2018. Studying the policy cycle process, according to the policy cycle theory step by step, there have been going through the alternative process whereby I also need to consider the previous situation in which what happened in the past ( Before 2011). In the case of Myanmar, the education system depended on the British education system for the Higher Education System and the Basic Education System have been formulated by the Monastic Education System. In the past, the education system and policy depended on the government's authority without negotiation and participation with other organizations related to the education field meant the teachers, students, parents, the donors from other countries, other educational organizations, and so on. Therefore, the education system and processes had a low level especially in the basic education level among Southeast Asia.

Even though their education policy implementation theory had possible conditions, this paper attempts to establish a policy framework as a heuristic tool to analyze policies, especially as they relate to the formulation and implementation of education policy in Southeast Asia. In this literature, the Tobin, Lietz, Nugroho, Vivekanandan, & Nyamkhuu, 2015, stated the education policy according to a framework with three types of policy which have system-level policies, resource allocation policies, or teaching and learning policies (Tobin, M., Lietz, P., Nugroho, D., Vivekanandan, R., & Nyamkhuu,T, 2015, pp. 3-10)

Authors illustrate the system-level policies point to policies regarding evaluation systems and operations which include assessment policies and policies regulating curricular and performance standards. The second one is the resource allocation policies. This refers to the ways in which resources have been determined and have been allocated within an education system including the policies on in-service professional development programs to stakeholders, for instance, school leaders and teachers, instructional and teaching materials such as textbooks, and streaming mechanisms that dispatch students to schools according to certain metrics. Understanding on teaching and learning policies which related to the specific school-level and classroom-level practices, and related to factors such as: classroom management, differentiated teaching and support for students, professional collaboration and learning, teacher-student relationships, job satisfaction and efficacy, enhanced learning activities, collaborative or competitive learning, and programs to support students' interest and motivation in school (Tobin, M., Lietz, P., Nugroho, D., Vivekanandan, R., & Nyamkhuu,T, 2015, p. 9).

The teaching and learning policies have identified the current Myanmar education problems. In the past, teaching and learning policy was the main object of the Myanmar education sector. Government had supported the basic education sector from 2010: the transition of the democratic system. These policies were almost completed in the country but some matters still need to complete such as: professional collaboration and learning. Other matters in this policy have been implemented by the new education system. For example, boosting on the learning activities by performing with the new innovation program in which basic education level students can learn with a laptop in the classroom. The system-level policies which have been starting and the curriculum have been reformed with many strategies since before 2010. However, the reforming processes are heading to the current educational issues, as mentioned above; they have not collaborated with the professional organization and have not negotiated with the educational members. The resource allocation policies implemented in the region, considering about 90 % have been supported by the government. Based on these policies, Myanmar basic education can address it was not fully implemented in the country due to the supporting of the resources. Furthermore, the author states four factors on education that situational factors, structural factors, cultural factors, and international factors (Tobin, M., Lietz, P., Nugroho, D., Vivekanandan, R., & Nyamkhuu,T, 2015). The problem of this thesis could be explained these four factors. Among these factors, the structural factors and cultural factors are the most important for understanding deficiency of teachers in selected regions.

Structural factors are the relatively unchanging elements of the society which extend to which it is open or closed and the opportunities for civil society to participate in policy discussions and decisions and furthermore structural factors may also include the type of economy and the employment base. Author gives the example of the teacher's perspective on their jobs, when the salaries are low for the professional teachers, these teachers will change to other professions and other jobs where it can cause professionalism and the labor. I agree with the author's purpose. The basic education sector always needs the profession teachers in the whole year due to increasing the population. In Myanmar, the number of teachers still lacks in the Basic Primary Schools especially in the primary teachers, according to the World Bank, 2014. Teachers' salaries basically receive about 130$ (180,000 Kyats) per year which means 4$ per day for primary public teachers. In Myanmar, most of all, in the public schools, teacher's salary has been undercut compared to other neighboring countries across Southeast Asia. In the example of the Philippines, the public schools' teachers receive more than private schools. Even the elementary teachers in public school get about 400$ (600,000 Kyats) per month. Another example of Malaysia, the salary for the public teachers' salary rank starts from 700 $(1,050,000 Kyats) based on the teaching experiences. In Cambodia, the primary teacher's salary rank starts from 300$ (4500, 000 Kyats). Compared with Myanmar's teachers in the government school, their wages are lower among Southeast Asia. This issue is a matter of what teachers want to change their profession and wants to move to the private schools (Teachers and Salary in Myanmar, Interview-Internet source). For this reason, they have been moving to other jobs such as tuition and private schools where they can get much more money than the government schools. Compared with other professions, for instance, daily workers can also get 4$ per day with their insurances. For the teachers in rural areas, they have not received the security, transportation fees, housing and medical insurance from the government thereby teachers have been moving their profession under the salaries.

According to Hew & Brush, 2007, this factor will affect a society's education policy include demographic features or technological developments. Nowadays, technologies have been changing and that affects schools by using ICT (information communications technology). Supporting the adding policy for ICT, this can effect on the teaching methods and can provide the quality of education (Hew, K.F & Brush,T., 2007). ICT policy was initiated across Southeast Asia, according to the SEAMEO (the Southeast Asia Ministries of Education Organization), 2010, however, it has not been begun in Myanmar until 2018 due to the lack of policy providing from the government and ministry of education. Another point of view, this policy was delayed before 2011 because of the country's education system that was dependent only on the government and minister not including other organizations.

In the democratic system, the policy makers, educators and education leaders know how to use the education sector; this policy affects the basic education sector according to the SEAMEO. By using ICT, the education has been improving for teaching, learning and administration. According to Hew & Brush, ICT can provide relative education policies with coherence, direction and meaning, and help drive changes in culture, policies and practices mediated by ICT (Hew, K.F & Brush,T., 2007). The cultural factors can also measure on the Myanmar education system due to the position of ethnic minorities or linguistic differences may lead to certain groups being unreached or underserved.

According to Jaffe, Religious factors can also strongly affect policy. Example in the American, as evidenced by the acrimonious debate surrounding the teaching of evolution in American schools since the 1920s. In the last decade, several American states have adopted anti-evolution education bills that allow children to be taught by educators, who are able to promote creationist alternatives to evolution (Jaffe, 2016). For example, In the Mong Hsat, Shan State, children from remote communities and poor ethnic minority families often lack access to schools or to complete schooling. Given the small size of most hill tribe villages, village high schools are impractical. Therefore, most high school students are required to move to larger urban centers to attend secondary schools. Example of Tha Nak Pin, Bago division, most of the middle school level students move to the Bago due to the floating in these areas. Students cannot go to school in the rainy season because they need to pass by boat to reach their school. Government cannot give the sufficient teachers for this area, for this reason students are going to the school. Author defines how the education policy changes or not, the government intends to promote the focusing sector to become better policy outcomes (Hew, K.F & Brush,T., 2007, p. 7). Therefore, some policy formulated by the government should need to deal within the policy makers and society.

Understanding policy implementation steps, the author explained by approaching with top-down approaches. There are six conditions needed for the policy implementation. According to Sabatier and Mazmanian, they state that it should be clear and logically consistent objectives, sufficient and causal theory, an implementation process have been structured by decision makers and respect on the process, compromising with skillful officials, supporting from interest groups and legislature, based on the causal theory underlying the policy have not change on the socio-economic conditions (Sabatier, P., & Mazmanian, D., 1979). This policy process was intended to be sufficient for the implementation process whereby most of the supporters argued that could provide and give the direction to the policy makers how to implement empirically.

However, according to Buse, Mays, and Walt, they criticize this approach that has been relying on the central decision makers, neglect the role of other actors' perspectives such as NGOs, professional bodies, the private sector, and contribute to the regional district authorities and teachers. Therefore, these analytical approaches foreword to the central government authorities and have not given involvement to the local level somewhere need to participate with other agencies. And also stated this approach is unhelpful for the policy implementation processes because of misleading to the policy decisions and has no explicit implementation. Therefore, analyzing their criticisms, according to Buse, Mays, and Walt, the ' top-down' approach has been complicated and pointed out as a useless approach. It can only indicate the gap between expectation and reality based on the Sabatier and Mazmanian. Hogwood and Gumm advised ten events to implement a 'top-down' approach to become a perfect implementation due to the above mentioned Hogwood and Gunn, 1984). According to the Hogwood and Gunn (1984)'s Perfect Implementation, they examined for the implementation, they added the following ten approaches which are as follows:

1. The circumstances external to the agency do not impose crippling constraints.

2. Adequate time and sufficient resources are available.

3. The required combination of resources is available.

4. The policy is based on a valid theory of cause and effect.

5. The relationship between cause and effect is direct.

6. Dependency relationships are minimal in other words, the policy makers are not reliant on groups or organizations which are themselves inter-dependent.

7. There is an understanding of, and agreement on, objectives.

8. Tasks are fully specified in the correct sequence.

9. Communication and coordination are perfect.

10. Those in authority can demand and obtain perfect compliance (Hogwood, 1984, pp. 41-50)

However, this 'top-down' approach does not improve for the implementation and was asserted by bad comments. Therefore, these approaches do not provide a helpful guideline for the implementation process. My research is going into the basic policy implementation process because it has been analyzed by using the policy cycle process in which to understand the alternative process of the basic education policy. Hogwood and Gunn's approaches do not have any applicable ways to analyze my research.

This growth in participation has been accompanied by a shift in the use of assessments which have been intended to provide information for evidence based policy and decision-making about education inputs and resourcing with a view to the continuous improvement of learning outcomes (Kamens, 2010, pp. 5-25). Based on this growth of participation method, in the case of Myanmar's basic education system, this assessment is not suitable for the country before 2010. Government had launched the education policy without based on this assessment and researchers, therefore, the education outcomes have been delayed among the Asian countries. To implement for the education outcome or for the better results on it, the educational inputs/ agenda setting need to settle strongly. It means that the education policies actually need to come out from the research, not based on one person. As an example of Myanmar education reforming, in 2012, the student's union in the central part of Myanmar, Mandalay had led to become and appear for a new education policy. The government did not draw the new education policy based on research and practice. Furthermore, the government does not participate with teachers, students, and parents' perspectives. Finally, this policy was useful and like an authorized policy. Therefore, according to Gordan, Lousi and Young, they define "the education policy framework can be used to analyze or understand a particular policy, or be applied to plan a particular policy (GORDON, 1997). Therefore, this factor can measure on of government implementation process what it has done by the stages.

2. Education of Myanmar

Myanmar has been transitioning to the democratic system since 2011. The country's development is dependent on the economy which is impacted by the quality of education. The educational reform policies, therefore, have been fully implemented since the democratic transition began (2010 to date). Historically, the British government had established Christian missionary schools in Yangon and Mandalay and the other cities had preparatory schools for upper levels before independence (the 1940s to 1950s) saw a westernized educational system in Myanmar which was considered to be prestigious among the ASEAN states.

Myanmar gained independence from the British in 1948. In 1974, the government declared and started a socialist system. The military started getting involved in the operation of governmental institutions whereby ministries were run by former military officers. This period faced a decline in the education system and policies due to the anti-government riot of 1988 which resulted in the military take-over that lasted until 2010. The 1988 riots resulted in the shutting down of Yangon University located in Yangon province (then capital city until 2005) by the military junta.

In 1989, the military government changed the country name to Myanmar which represented all of 135 ethnic groups within its border, giving up “Burma” which represented only one major ethnic group. Due to the military coup of 1988, the majority of the western countries refused to acknowledge the new name “Myanmar”. Nowadays, it has been acknowledged as the country's official name. Under the military government, the country had been isolated from the rest of the world with sanctions from the United States affecting the foreign investments in the county. This isolation is what has made Myanmar lag far much behind as compared to the developed world in terms of its education standard which is among the lowest-ranked education systems in the world.

The biggest challenge the government has faced is reforming the education sector which has impacted the country's development in terms of the basic education system, higher education system, and technical and vocational programs. According to the 2011 data statistic, education expenditure is 0.8 per cent of the country's GDP which makes it the lowest-rated (172th) in the world (World Data on Education, 2010-11). Education budget, on the other hand, keeps on decreasing annually as compared to other expenditures. The education system was transformed by the many policies and aims of the international standard education system. For the future generation, students are the key to human resource and foundation of the country's development. According to Kennedy, he states that "outcome of education is affected by the quality of the teaching workforce. Well-qualified and committed teachers make the difference between success and failure for many students" (Kenny, 1998). Therefore, teachers are basically important in education.

According to CEIC, the enrollment of primary students has increased, and the amount of teachers has decreased in Myanmar from 2010 to 2018. Therefore, the first chapter will describe the education system and structure of the education department in Myanmar and reformation new education and effects on basic education.

The Myanmar education generally can be clarified by six periods of time: the monarchy, the parliament democracy, the socialist government, the state peace, and the development council and ongoing period (the democracy government).

The first monarchy education was launched by the monks as the traditional culture. Therefore, most of the parents sent their children to the monasteries to become educated and intelligent people within society. Monks are the teachers who learn the Buddhist language called "Parli" language, ethics, the native major language (Burmese Language) and basic Mathematics. In Myanmar, Buddhism is the main religion of the country. Monasteries were established by the parents who wanted to give them out as an inheritance to their children. Therefore, the monarchy education had developed around the countryside. In this education, boys and girls were discriminated against by culture and religion. Boys had the chance to study in the monastery and they become the monks or study advanced Buddha's philosophy when they became adults. The girls, on the other hand, helped their parents to manage their homes and finally, they became good wives for their own family.

The next generation of education was started by the King Mindom in 1853 and established the school for an Anglican missionary. The education system was formulated by the British and it became the popular education for the upper class. The missionary schools were set up in Yangon, Mandalay and other major cities. Therefore, the British education system developed in Myanmar and had a good education structure during the colonial period.

The difference between Monarchy education and Anglican, the girls could get access to schooling. For this reason, female employment increased and increased the country's development because the education and economy relate to the country's development. After independence from the British in 1948, the Myanmar government promoted education and as a result, the education and economic level escalated and became the first rapid developing country among the Southeast Asia countries. However, when the government changed to the socialist system due to the country's religious conflicts between the ethnic communities, affected the country's education and development.

After independence, the country was government by a parliamentary democracy based on the September 1947 constitution until 1962. The military took over the country in 1962. The socialist government managed the country's all administrative sectors and therefore, the Ministry of Education was under the military administration. After two years, the socialist government enacted the new education law. The first step of the education system was changing the subjects from Myanmar language to English in 1965. In 1977, the government established the new regional college system that all students had to attend due to the proximity. After attending 2 years in regional college, the students could join a traditional university where they had to spend another 2 years but this system was also stopped in 1981. That was the rapid change for the language. Therefore, students were not in a position of studying in the English language due to the difficulties involved. Socialist government was transformed from the military government reintroducing English as a medium language in universities in 1982 (Lwin, 2000).