Considering peculiarities of technical texts in the translation process

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Considering peculiarities of technical texts in the translation process

Ababilova Nataliia Mykolaivna

Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor, Associate Professor of the Department of English Philology and Translation, Petro Mohyla Black Sea National University, Mykolaiv

Abstract

The article examines approaches to the interpretation of “technical text” and their features defining the peculiarities of the translation of technical texts. Technical cooperation between countries, the rapid development of science and technology, and the strengthening of international relations in the technical field lead to an increase in the volume of information. The development of the translation of technical texts, which belong to the scientific and technical genre and differ from other texts in their focus on facts and information; consistent, clear and precise structure; and content related to scientific, technological and industrial knowledge, is one of the most pressing issues in modern translation studies. The purpose of the article is to examine contemporary scholarly perspectives concerning technical texts and to analyze their operational dynamics within the paradigm of translation researches. Technical texts are intended to teach a person who receives information, instructions or methodology for performing a certain activity or process and are characterized by objectivity, lack of expressive and stylistic means, economy and formality; logic and content; clear definition of interrelations and interdependencies. Technical texts are multifunctional and, in addition to informative, argumentative and accumulative functions, they also perform a non-informative function, as they can help to strengthen the image of the author or company; obtain financial support or sell a product or know-how. Translating technical texts requires a great deal of responsibility, as failure to comply with the requirements can lead to serious consequences. Difficulties in translating technical texts arise due to the polysemy of terms, regional differences in their meaning, as the same term may have different shades of meaning for different countries, and the presence of abbreviations that are not always clear even to experts in the field. When translating technical texts, it is recommended to adhere to a number of requirements, among which it is important that the translated technical text is as accurate and understandable as possible for the user. Translators must have comprehension of the chosen topic and the industry within which they are translating, as well as possess all the necessary translation techniques to ensure that the translated text reflects the original text as accurately as possible.

Keywords: translation, technical text, features of technical texts, difficulties in translating technical texts

Анотація

Абабілова Наталія Миколаївна кандидат педагогічних наук, доцент, доцент кафедри англійської філології та перекладу, Чорноморський національний університет імені Петра Могили, м. Миколаїв

ВРАХУВАННЯ ОСОБЛИВОСТЕЙ ТЕХНІЧНИХ ТЕКСТІВ У ПРОЦЕСІ ПЕРЕКЛАДУ

У статті розглянуто підходи до трактування поняття «технічний текст», особливості технічних текстів, які визначають особливості перекладу технічних текстів. Технічне співробітництво між країнами, швидкий розвиток науки й техніки, зміцнення міжнародних зв'язків у технічній галузі призводять до зростання обсягів інформації. Розвиток перекладу технічних текстів, які відносяться до науково- технічного жанру та відрізняються від інших текстів своєю спрямованістю на факти та інформацію; послідовною, чіткою і точною структурою; змістом, що пов'язаний з науковими, технологічними та промисловими знаннями є однією з актуальних проблем сучасного перекладознавства. Мета статті - розглянути сучасні наукові погляди на технічні тексти та проаналізувати їхню функціональну динаміку в парадигмі перекладознавчих досліджень. Встановлено, що технічні тексти мають на меті навчити особу, яка отримує інформацію, інструкції або методології виконання певної діяльності або процесу та характеризуються об'єктивністю, відсутністю виражальних та стилістичних засобів, економічністю та формальністю; логічністю та змістовністю; чітким визначенням взаємозв'язків і взаємозалежностей. Технічні тексти є мультифункціональними та, крім інформативной, аргументативной та акумулятивной функцій, виконують й неінформативну функцію, оскільки можуть сприяти зміцненню іміджу автора або компанії; отриманню фінансової підтримки або продажам продукту або ноу-хау. Переклад технічних текстів вимагає великої відповідальності, оскільки недотримання вимог може призвести до серйозних наслідків. Складнощі перекладу технічних текстів виникають у зв'язку з полісемією термінів, регіональними відмінностями у їхньому смислі, оскільки один і той же термін може мати різні відтінки значень для різних країн, а також наявністю скорочень, які не завжди зрозумілі навіть спеціалістам у галузі. У процесі перекладу технічного тексту рекомендується дотримуватися ряду вимог, серед яких важливо, щоб перекладений технічний текст був максимально точним і зрозумілим для користувача. Перекладач повинен мати розуміння в обраній темі та галузі, в межах якої він виконує переклад, а також володіти всім необхідним набором перекладацьких прийомів для того, щоб текст перекладу максимально точно відображав текст оригіналу.

Ключові слова: переклад, технічний текст, ознаки технічних текстів, труднощі перекладу технічних текстів

Introduction

The rise of science and technology has made it clear that technology is everywhere in our society nowadays, leading to the rise of technical writing which is quite different from traditional writing because it is all about being accurate and informative. It is widely agreed that technical texts are clear and organized, carefully explaining step-by-step processes or frameworks for doing something; cover topics from science, technology, and industry, blending theory with real-world application. Basically, technical texts are all about using scientific knowledge to get stuff done in the real world. Thus, their goal is to exchange and disseminate knowledge and expertise needed to do specific tasks. As J. Kingscott rightly notes [11], about ninety per cent of the translation produced in the world today is of a technical nature. It is generally agreed that translating technical documentation serves several important purposes among which the following ones are especially worth mentioning: 1) enabling companies to expand their markets by reaching customers in different regions and language communities thus targeting international markets, increasing companies' customer base and revenue potential; 2) ensuring that products, services, and processes meet legal and safety standards in various countries or regions; 3) contributing to understanding how to operate, maintain, and troubleshoot products and systems thus improving comprehension, usability, and safety; 4) facilitating the exchange of knowledge and expertise among professionals, researchers, and academics worldwide and as a result enabling broader access and collaboration within specialized fields; 5) supporting education and professional development in diverse linguistic contexts allowing learners to access high-quality educational resources in their native languages, promoting skill acquisition and career advancement.

Therefore, the abovementioned grounds the relevance of the research aiming at specifying peculiarities of translating technical texts and the impact of the quality of technical texts translation on the society.

Analysis of the latest research and publications

Within the realm of foreign scholarly discourse, a comprehensive consensus regarding the conceptual boundaries of technical texts remains elusive, characterized by divergent perspectives and occasionally contradictory definitions. Thus, K. Zethsen posits a broad interpretation, contending that any discourse employing technical language within a domain of technical knowledge is qualified as a technical text [18]. Conversely, numerous scholars advocate for a more specific definition, contending that technical texts are typified by their deliberate omission of stylistic devices and emotional vocabulary, thereby ensuring unambiguous comprehension [7, 15]. In alignment with this viewpoint, E. Derdi defines technical texts as thematically, stylistically, and semantically organized ones, possessing logical coherence and comprehensive unity. Such texts are characterized by the pervasive use of specialized terminological vocabulary and show grammatical and syntactical intricacy, reflecting a stylistic scope encompassing scientific, technical, and official business styles [8]. Moreover, certain Western scholars [13] underscore the imperative of distinguishing between technical and specialized texts, contending that while diverse fields of human inquiry are replete with style-specific terminologies, not all texts within such disciplines should be considered technical. Technical texts are most often concerned with the use of certain skills in practice, are a particular way of communicating technical knowledge; they occur in a wide range of contexts and include different types of texts that may not be immediately identified as technical, but may be technical in nature.

The purpose of the article is to examine contemporary scholarly perspectives concerning technical texts and their features; to analyze their influence on the translation process of technical texts and to clarify what aspects translators of technical texts need to pay attention to.

Presentation of the main material of the study

technical text translation process

It is evident that a technical text is construed as a multifaceted, intricately layered specialized discourse, posing comprehension challenges for individuals lacking proficiency in the subject matter due to its extensive use of highly specialized terminologies. In addition to its lexical difficulties, the notion of a “technical text” encompasses a constellation of other criteria that collectively delineate it as a distinct linguistic and communicative entity. A technical text transcends mere paraphrasing, even when preserving the semantic fidelity of the source document. Emotive expressions and subjective evaluations are conspicuously absent within the confines of technical discourse. Thus, summarizing the existing approaches to the definition of technical texts, we interpret “a technical text” as a functional unit of technical discourse characterized by a distinct linguistic register comprehensible to experts within a specialized domain of technical expertise.

Technical texts perform a considerable number of functions. Central to the purpose of a technical text is the dissemination of novel data within a specific disciplinary context. In this regard, S. Moiseienko posits that the primary function of a technical text is informative, with authors endeavoring to give readers precise, substantiated information conveyed through compelling argumentation aimed at augmenting or reshaping the reader's cognitive framework. Thus, a technical text embodies a dual communicative role, serving as both an argumentative instrument, endeavoring to persuade readers and engender shifts in their perceptual paradigms, and an informative channel, rendering specialized technical content [14]. Concurring with scholars who underscore the informational imperative inherent in technical texts, we acknowledge that a principal function of this discourse is to provide information or instructions to recipients so that they could cope with technical tasks, since instructions, technical developments, scientific articles are not read for aesthetic pleasure. However, K. Zethsen notes an additional dimension of technical texts beyond their informative function, highlighting their advantage in strengthening the author's or company's image, obtaining financial support, or commercializing products or expertise [18]. Contrary to traditional belief, the author claims that technical texts are often very expressive and persuasive, thus attesting to their multifaceted nature. Technical texts contain specialized professional language, therefore, based on the works of R. Kocourek, it might be legitimate to note such a function of technical texts as accumulative [12], since technical texts are a place of knowledge accumulation. Furthermore, while technical texts fulfill explicit functions, they also bear implicit purposes. For instance, they serve as archival repositories documenting research data and procedural methodologies, thereby facilitating project implementation accuracy and protecting intellectual property rights. Therefore, technical texts foster the exchange of information and research findings, providing evidential support for hypotheses and theoretical validity.

Technical texts reveal considerable diversity not only in their disciplinary affiliations within the realms of science and technology but also in terms of their degree of specialization. According to K. Budinski, technical texts can be divided into four groups: reports; academic documents such as theses and journal articles; patents and operating instructions [4]. Based on the criterion of “most frequently cited”, K. Zethsen classifies technical texts into scientific articles; specifications; textbooks; encyclopedias; manuals; and patent applications [18]. However, we contend that such a classification scheme may be inappropriate, as many of these types primarily pertain to scientific literature rather than technical discourse. Acknowledging the peculiarities of technical texts typology, technical literature encompasses several distinct categories, including design documentation (comprising a compendium of documents essential for product development, manufacturing, quality control, acceptance, delivery, and operationalization, including repair protocols), technological documentation (encompassing documents delineating the manufacturing process of a product), and software documentation (comprising materials furnishing requisite information for program development, manufacturing, maintenance, and operation) [16]. A comprehensive examination of scholarly sources reveals that technical texts predominantly comprise patent and design documentation, equipment and material catalogues, technical descriptions, product specifications, as well as instructional materials for equipment installation or repair. This corpus encompasses a broad spectrum of documents such as passports, copyright certificates, patents, specifications, manuals (including operational instructions for machinery and mechanisms), standards, waybills, designs, calculations, drawings, software interfaces, web applications, and proprietary platforms.

Considering features of technical texts, the following ideas could be emphasized. Notably, technical texts exhibit characteristic traits such as objectivity, devoid of expressive or emotive elements, underscored by a sense of economy and formality [3]. Furthermore, they evince logical coherence and structural clarity, manifesting in a lucid articulation of main ideas and auxiliary details, delineated by a strict sequential order [10]. Additionally, these texts demonstrate a discernible clarity in the depiction of interconnections and interdependencies, with each statement logically linked to preceding and/or subsequent information. The abovementioned is to be taken into account when rendering technical texts into the target language.

It is nowadays that technical translation is viewed as the basis of international trade and the scientific activity that stimulates it [6]. But it has not always been the same. Technical texts translation has long been perceived as relatively unstimulating and less appealing when compared with other genres of translation, often regarded as a rigorous exercise in navigating specialized terminologies and domain-specific knowledge. Technical translation has long been seen as the “ugly duckling” of translation studies, especially in academic circles... It has traditionally been seen as the “poor relation” of “real” translation (Jody Birne) [5].

Technical translation is often seen as one of the branches of specialized translation as it belongs to a particular industry (mechanical engineering, automotive, electronics, mining, telecommunications, metallurgy, construction and other related fields) requiring from a translator the skills of a professional who specializes in the subject matter of the document being translated. That is why, according to A. Alaoui, many such translators possess or have backgrounds in engineering, medicine, or architecture [2]. This is because if the document is intended to be understood only by technical specialists as end users, it should be translated by a translator with a professional profile similar, though not identical, to the target audience. Translators tasked with technical texts should demonstrate adeptness in conveying information with clarity, simplicity, and conciseness, underpinned by robust research acumen and a keen utilization of parallel corpora and other linguistic resources at their disposal. This multifaceted skill set enables translators to navigate the difficulties of technical discourse effectively, ensuring the faithful transfer of information across linguistic and cultural boundaries. Indeed, J. Birne posits technical translation as arguably the most arduous form of translation, necessitating not only linguistic proficiency but also a deep-seated grasp of technical intricacies to ensure a faithful rendering of content across languages. Contrary to popular belief, the act of translating technical texts extends beyond the mere transfer of terminology, although such terminology constitutes the most conspicuous facet of technical discourse, serving as the cornerstone facilitating information transmission. Moreover, J. Birne highlights the prevailing uniformity characterizing technical terminology, attributable in part to the pervasive influence of English in the genesis of neologisms and the proliferation of comprehensive glossaries offered by software companies across various linguistic domains [5, 6]. This homogeneity of technical terminology contributes to the efficacy and consistency of technical translations, streamlining the interpretive process for translators while fortifying the communicative potency of technical texts. It is suggested that, the translation process of technical texts necessitates the translator's engagement with three primary “agents”: the initiator (the entity commissioning the document translation), informants (the individuals to whom the translator directs the information), and recipients (those receiving

the final translated product) [15], which means that translators plan and create communication tools for the audience to absorb the information, so J. Birne claims that it may be time to rename translators of technical texts as multilingual technical communicators [5].

In discussions regarding the challenges encountered by translators of technical texts, scholarly discourse predominantly underscores a cluster of lexical issues inherent in the translation process. Foremost among these challenges is the issue of terminological ambiguity. Technical lexicons frequently present terms that engender interpretive dilemmas, particularly for individuals possessing an engineering background, wherein disparate technical disciplines may assign divergent meanings to identical terminology. Moreover, it merits acknowledgment that regional disparities in semantic interpretation further compound the translator's task, necessitating meticulous consideration of contextual nuances to ensure accurate rendition, particularly given the potential for divergent linguistic usages across various geographical locales. Another important problem with technical texts is the presence of abbreviations or acronyms in the texts, which are not always clear even to technical specialists. Abbreviations and acronyms can become an insurmountable barrier to quality translation. Within English technical literature, abbreviations span across all grammatical categories, exemplified by instances such as “assembly” abbreviated as “assy”, “without”" as “w/o”, and “weight to volume” as “w/v”, among others. At the same time, it is not typical to see such abbreviations as “documents - docs”, “information - info” and others in Ukrainian technical documentation, which is unacceptable from the stylistic point of view of the Ukrainian language and its inherent scientific and technical style. Furthermore, the translation of technical terminology not yet assimilated into the linguistic lexicon of the target language presents additional challenges. In such instances, specialists are compelled to undertake meticulous searches and selections among various candidate terms within the thematic domain, striving to identify equivalents that faithfully encapsulate the conceptual nuances of the source material [17]. One more feature mentioned by researchers is the idea that technical translation presupposes a solid knowledge base of technological skills, i.e. computer-assisted translation (CAT) or machine translation (MT). On the one hand, it is obvious that not all technical translators perform translation with the help of CAT or MT, e.g. texts that require more creativity in the document may be translated without the use of the mentioned tools, while documents dealing with mechanics or engineering that contain frequently translated phrases and terms are often translated using CAT or MT [1]. On the other hand, CAT knowledge can aid in translating technical texts in such aspects as:

1. Terminology Management: CAT tools often include terminology management features that allow translators to create and maintain glossaries of technical terms. This ensures consistency in terminology throughout the translation, which is crucial in technical texts where precise terminology is paramount.

2. Translation Memory: CAT tools use translation memory, a database that stores previously translated segments, along with their corresponding source and target language pairs. In technical texts, where repetitive phrases or sentences are common, TM helps ensure consistency and efficiency by reusing previously translated segments.

3. Quality Assurance Checks: CAT tools typically include quality assurance features to identify potential errors or inconsistencies in the translation. This is particularly useful in technical texts, where accuracy is crucial. Quality assurance checks can catch issues such as mistranslations, missing translations, or formatting errors before the final delivery.

4. Integration with Subject Matter Resources: Some CAT tools allow integration with external resources such as specialized dictionaries, style guides, or reference materials relevant to the technical field. This integration helps translators access additional context or information necessary for accurately translating technical content.

5. Workflow Management: CAT tools offer workflow management capabilities that streamline the translation process, from project organization to collaboration among translators, editors, and project managers. This is beneficial in handling complex technical projects with multiple contributors and tight deadlines.

6. File Format Support: Technical documents often come in various file formats, including proprietary formats specific to certain software or systems. CAT tools support a wide range of file formats, allowing translators to work directly with the original files without the need for manual conversion or formatting, which saves time and preserves the document's integrity.

Thus, the importance of CAT knowledge in effectively handling the challenges of translating technical content is obvious.

Quality and precision are suggested to be of paramount considerations in any translation endeavor, particularly so in the context of technical texts as minor inaccuracies in technical translations can yield significant repercussions, ranging from financial penalties and legal disputes to reputational damage or the invalidation of patents, thereby impeding a company's market viability. Notably, meticulous translation of technical texts serves numerous purposes, including enhancing customer satisfaction, ensuring compliance with local and international regulatory standards (product labels, safety instructions), safeguarding intellectual property rights in foreign jurisdictions (patent translations), and fostering increased market penetration through localized product offerings. The efficiency of technical translation is contingent upon a nuanced comprehension of the unique features inherent to this genre of literature and the translator's comprehension of the essence of the text. Indeed, a translator's ability to accurately convey technical content hinges upon their familiarity with industry-specific terminology and operational mechanisms. Furthermore, translators can be advised to handle the grammatical and syntactical disparities between languages while preserving the author's stylistic nuances, logical coherence, and informational presentation. Thus, the objective of translating technical texts is to facilitate end-user comprehension of technical information, thereby enhancing usability and accessibility.

Conclusions

Presently, the translation of technical texts constitutes a substantial proportion of translators` professional undertakings worldwide, reflecting its prominence within the realm of translation endeavours. It continues to evolve in response to emerging technologies, globalization, and interdisciplinary collaboration. Machine translation and artificial intelligence are also playing a growing role in automating certain aspects of technical translation, although human expertise remains indispensable for ensuring accuracy and quality. Taking the above into account, the following requirements for translating technical texts could be formulated. Notably, a paramount criterion entails the fidelity of the translated material to the original while ensuring its comprehensibility to the end-user. Mere proficiency in both the source and target languages is insufficient to attain a translation of essential quality. The translator must possess a profound knowledge of the subject matter under scrutiny, coupled with a nuanced comprehension of the relevant industry, thereby enabling the judicious application of a diverse array of translation techniques aimed at preserving the essence of the original text. Indeed, the translation of technical discourse necessitates recourse to an extensive array of technical and linguistic resources; the absence thereof compromises the fidelity and, at times, renders the task insurmountable. Consequently, a translator of technical texts need to know and correctly use auxiliary materials: dictionaries, books on specialized topics and reference books. Speaking of dictionaries, we should note that we are not just talking about specialized dictionaries in certain fields of technology. Dictionaries of idioms, glossaries, spelling dictionaries, auxiliary dictionaries; specialized linguistic dictionaries; and dictionaries of abbreviations will also come in handy. Sometimes a translator has to study literature on a similar topic to find a more accurate translation of the original. In the process of translating technical texts into a native language, translators are confronted with considerable challenges necessitating adept problem- solving skills. The quality of such translations is contingent upon various factors, foremost among which is the distinctive nature of technical literature. Additionally, the translator's comprehension of the text holds paramount significance; lacking a comprehensive understanding of the operational principles underlying the components or assemblies described within the text undermines the translator's ability to render an accurate and precise translation. Therefore, proficiency in the specific industry and its corresponding terminology is of pivotal importance. Translators are sure to remain cognizant of grammatical and syntactic disparities between languages, while concurrently endeavouring to preserve the author's stylistic peculiarities, logical coherence, and informational presentation techniques.

References:

1. Akhunbabayeva N. Kh (2021) Technical Translation as a Significant Communicational Bridge. Middle European Scientific Bulletin, 19, 269-272. URL: https://doi.org/10.47494/mesb.2021.19.980

2. Alaoui A. (2015) Knowledge Transfer and the Translation of Technical Texts. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol. 9. № 10. Р. 3380-3386.

3. Baakes K. (1994) Key Issues of Syntax in the Special Languages of Science and Technology, Julius Groos Verlag. URL: https://www.academia.edu/112535397/Klaus_ Baakes_Key_Issues_of_Syntax_in_the_Special_Languages_of_Science_and_Technology? uc-sb-sw=5542869

4. Budinski K. (2001) Engineers' Guide to Technical Writing. USA: ASM International. URL: http://www.asminternational.org/documents/10192/3448657/ACFAA61.pdf/ 7a23d004-3725-4a66-9847-63bf992686da

5. Byrne J. (2010) Are Technical Translators Writing Themselves Out of Existence? The Translator as Writer. Portsmouth, University of Portsmouth. 2010. P. 14?27.

6. Byrne J. (2006) Technical Translation. Usability Strategies for Translating Technical Documentation. Dordrecht: Springer, 2006. 280p.

7. Copeck T., Barker K., Delisle S., Szpakowicz S., Delannoy J.-F. (1997) What Is Technical Text? Language Sciences. Vol. 19. Iss. 4. Р. 391- 423.

8. Derdi E.T. (2013) Technical text as a linguistic phenomenon and object of translation. Bulletin of Zhytomyr Ivan Franko State University, 2013. Issue 4, pp. 146 - 149. (17) [in Ukrainian]

9. Dillon, A. & C. McKnight. (1990) Towards a Classification of Text Types: a Repertory Grid Approach. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies. Iss. 6. P. 623-636.

10. Gauch, S. & Futrelle R. P. (1993) The Scientist's Assistant: Structure-Based Navigation of Technical Texts. University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 1993.

11. Kingscott G. (2002) Technical Translation and Related Disciplines. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology. 10 (4). P. 247-255.

12. Kocourek R. (1991) La langue franзaise de la technique et de la science. Vers une linguistique de la langue savante. Wiesbaden: Oscar Brandstetter Verlag; 237 p.

13. Krьger R. (2016) The textual degree of technicality as a potential factor influencing the occurrence of explicitation in scientific and technical translation. The Journal of Specialised Translation. Iss. 26. P. 96-115.

14. Moiseienko S.Pragmatic features of English scientific and technical discourse. Scientific notes [of Kirovohrad Volodymyr Vynnychenko State Pedagogical University]: Philological Sciences. 2010. Issue 89(5). С. 360 - 363. [in Ukrainian]

15. Schubert K. (2009) Positioning Translation in Technical Communication Studies. The Journal of Specialised Translation. № 11. P. 17?30.

16. Tolibayeva U., Akhmedov O. Difficulties In Translating Scientific And Technical Texts. IJARP Vol.5 Issue 4, April. 2021. P 63 - 66.

17. Usachev V.A. Actual problems of translation of scientific and technical texts in English. Visnik DonNUET. 2013. № 2 (58). С.177 - 190. [in Ukrainian]

18. Zethsen K. K. (1999) The Dogmas of Technical Translation - are They Still Valid? URL: https://tidsskrift.dk/her/article/view/25549

Literature

1. Akhunbabayeva N. Kh (2021) Technical Translation as a Significant Communicational Bridge. Middle European Scientific Bulletin, 19, 269-272. URL: https://doi.org/10.47494/mesb.2021.19.980

2. Alaoui A. (2015) Knowledge Transfer and the Translation of Technical Texts. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol. 9. № 10. Р. 3380-3386.

3. Baakes K. (1994) Key Issues of Syntax in the Special Languages of Science and Technology, Julius Groos Verlag. URL: https://www.academia.edu/112535397/Klaus_ Baakes_Key_Issues_of_Syntax_in_the_Special_Languages_of_Science_and_Technology?uc-sb-sw=5542869

4. Budinski K. (2001) Engineers' Guide to Technical Writing. USA: ASM International. URL: http://www.asminternational.org/documents/10192/3448657/ACFAA61.pdf/ 7a23d004-3725-4a66-9847-63bf992686da

5. Byrne J. (2010) Are Technical Translators Writing Themselves Out of Existence? The Translator as Writer. Portsmouth, University of Portsmouth. 2010. P. 14?27.

6. Byrne J. (2006) Technical Translation. Usability Strategies for Translating Technical Documentation. Dordrecht: Springer, 2006. 280p.

7. Copeck T., Barker K., Delisle S., Szpakowicz S., Delannoy J.-F. (1997) What Is Technical Text? Language Sciences. Vol. 19. Iss. 4. Р. 391- 423.

8. Derdi E.T. (2013) Technical text as a linguistic phenomenon and object of translation. Bulletin of Zhytomyr Ivan Franko State University, 2013. Issue 4, pp. 146 - 149. (17) [in Ukrainian]

9. Dillon, A. & C. McKnight. (1990) Towards a Classification of Text Types: a Repertory Grid Approach. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies. Iss. 6. P. 623-636.

10. Gauch, S. & Futrelle R. P. (1993) The Scientist's Assistant: Structure-Based Navigation of Technical Texts. University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 1993.

11. Kingscott G. (2002) Technical Translation and Related Disciplines. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology. 10 (4). P. 247-255.

12. Kocourek R. (1991) La langue franзaise de la technique et de la science. Vers une linguistique de la langue savante. Wiesbaden: Oscar Brandstetter Verlag; 237 p.

13. Krьger R. (2016) The textual degree of technicality as a potential factor influencing the occurrence of explicitation in scientific and technical translation. The Journal of Specialised Translation. Iss. 26. P. 96-115.

14. Moiseienko S.Pragmatic features of English scientific and technical discourse. Scientific notes [of Kirovohrad Volodymyr Vynnychenko State Pedagogical University]: Philological Sciences. 2010. Issue 89(5). С. 360 - 363. [in Ukrainian]

15. Schubert K. (2009) Positioning Translation in Technical Communication Studies. The Journal of Specialised Translation. № 11. P. 17?30.

16. Tolibayeva U., Akhmedov O. Difficulties In Translating Scientific And Technical Texts. IJARP Vol.5 Issue 4, April. 2021. P 63 - 66.

17. Usachev V.A. Actual problems of translation of scientific and technical texts in English. Visnik DonNUET. 2013. № 2 (58). С.177 - 190. [in Ukrainian]

18. Zethsen K. K. (1999) The Dogmas of Technical Translation - are They Still Valid? URL: https://tidsskrift.dk/her/article/view/25549

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