The instrumentalism pedagogical projections at the modern school of FRG

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The instrumentalism pedagogical projections at the modern school of FRG

The article is devoted a problem of concretization of the instrumentalism philosophy in the education sphere. There are analyzed pedagogical projections of educational strategies “learning by doing”, “learning by going”, “learning by feeling”. It is shown their qualitative originality and difference from the instrumentalism pedagogics initial concept. Forms of realization of these concepts in the school practice of FRG are established and it is found out a deficiency in use of these constructs, connected with insufficient development of the gnoseological problematics in the didactics' sphere.

The modern pedagogical thought of FRG pays considerable attention to a problem of formation of cooperation skills and ability to work in a team among children and teenagers, thus commensurating a measure of own efforts with requirements going from without. This is its difference from ideological orientations of german instrumentalism of the end of the ÕIÕ - the beginning of the ÕÕ centuries providing need of the individual activity success.

Now it is possible to distinguish three directions of realization of the pedagogical instrumentalism ideas according to which the body of the person is an original “tool” of knowledge of the world: “learning by doing” (education in the process of “doing”), “learning by going” (education in the process of movement), “learning by feeling” (education in the process of feelings).

The “learning by doing” concept is realized in various organizational forms. To decision of an actual problem of group consolidation of the learning of various typological groups it is subordinated the development of new forms and content of pedagogical work - the so-called “projects”, called to combine the acquisition and reconstruction of individual experience by means of application of the tool method of knowledge.

In spite of rather long history of development of theory and practice work on the projects system which has been fragmentary and rather originally also apprehended by the Soviet school, in the pedagogics of FRG it is not yet developed its well-established definition and a uniform approach to realization, recognized by all theorists. There became widespread two approaches to understanding of features of their forming influence of the projects, under construction of distinctions in estimation of specificity of activity of the growing up person included into the system of education under projects.

The first of them continues the line of g. Kersensteiner, including into the content of projects the components of a handicraft-technological orientation and prescribed measurability of efforts the learning (repair, manufacturing of handicraft products, sports trainings, etc.). The second approach is under construction of the going from F. gansberg broad treatment of the “practice” concept, including, on the one hand, the “doing” process, i.e. spontaneous functioning for establishment of communications between subjectively not learnt elements of spiritual and material world, and, on the other hand - “doing” as an activity realized according to cultural-historical contexts and a present social and personal need.

In the modern school practice of FRG there are presented both approaches, however the majority of theorists acknowledges the primary forming value of the last of them in view of presence of more possibilities of independent acquisition of the individually significant, instead of acquisition of the prepared didactic data “at second hand” [4, 15, etc.]. Within the framework of this non-prescribed approach which, as a rule, is realized at specially devoted days of week, with a certain share of convention it is possible to distinguish three didactic fields.

1. the school as a subject and a practical activity's sphere - the projects are called to show both the importance of the school as a social institute, and derivativeness of its efficiency from transformative activity of micromodels constituent its structure - classes. The last are considered as communities which are carrying out learning and practical activity with assistance of adults as heads. For example, the “School garden” project, developed by E. Stork [13] and intended for pupils of primary and basic school, besides routine actions for care of plants and animals provides training in working out of the finance plan and accountability, the analysis of the content of professional consultations of the gardener, the landscape architect, and also creative tasks on performance of sketches of transformation of a school territory and designing of own flowerbeds. In such projects there are interlocked two earlier outlined lines of instrumentalism - line of F. gansberg on self-reflexion and definition of a personal and individual place in joint movement to the purpose and the line of B. Otto on attraction to participation in the forming action of children and adults on the basis of parity. The idea of improvement of all aspects of school life which can be reached not by means of individual actions, but as a consequence of joint efforts of schoolboys, teachers, and persons of formal authorities should become an object of individual reflexion of participants in projects.

2. a place of residence is a space for meetings and games - the projects open the essence of the concepts of communication, multiculture, sub- and inteculturalism, national and civil identification, and also show possibility of finding of a point of contact of interests of the direct social partnership of people belonging to polarly opposite social classes. The examples of such projects are the projects “german and Turkish children study their quarter” [2], “Our playground is built by ourselves” [9]. The projects concerning this theme group provide the long-term interaction with the city authorities and acquaintance with nearby cult constructions, and also studying of the content of children's game and their rules which are considered as products of cultural-historical development of ethnoses.

3. Ecology as a global problem - projects aim at acquaintance and comprehension of lines of interrelation of the person with world around. Presented by a considerable quantity of developments, this theme is developed within the frameworks of the general idea of responsibility for a freely made choice. The system of practical actions initiated by the pedagogue is called to bring to a thought on expediency of election of a line of conduct adequate to nature protection attitudes. These concern, for example, a water filtration, “approbation” of various recycled resources materials for making useful hand-made articles, use of non-polluting fertilizers at care of personally planted plants, analysis of exhaust gases, planning of a course of interview on ecological subjects, etc. They are considered as basic points of display of the further cognitive initiative providing formation of a civic stand of the schoolboy.

In whole in the instrumentalism pedagogics, realizing its ideas in the projecting education form, there is a tendency to a more detailed study and methodical support of sequence used by children for knowledge of actions, instead of operations of thinking or comprehension of the content of concepts as tools of acquisition of new knowledge as preconditions of successful orientation of the person in the world. Noticing this tendency and critically estimating the content of a wide spectrum of all sorts of projects, g. Beck sharply puts a question on what may appear more expedient - “to educate in projects or on the materials of projects” in “the framework of the epochal projecting education connected with external world” [1, p. 206]. The theorist, constructing the system of own reasonings according to the instrumentalism canons - from the problem comprehension through the hypothesis promotion to its verification - supports increase in volume and perfection of a technique of preliminary theoretical introduction of the teaching material which is to be comprehended further. As g. Beck fairly believes, the propaedeutic work corresponding to age features and needs helps to bring pupils of the primary school, who are the object of profound consideration, to initial independent development of more general, abstract concepts.

g. Beck develops the further theses in the vein of the instrumentalism concept “education from cradle to grave” and proves importance of such approach by that among schoolboys it puts a need for comprehension and restructuring of the basic components of concepts individually comprehended by the sense, constructing the subsequent reasoning according to changing parameters of categories as tools of the further cognition and comprehending their value as factors of expansion of personal horizons.

Estimating the modern german pedagogues' approaches to statement of the projecting education, we should notice that the projects representing doubtless interest from substantial and methodical positions, in a certain measure satisfy needs of children for practical actions and socializing communication, allowing to direct in the implicit form their cognitive and practical activity in a direction given from without.

The tendency to oppose to the subject teaching the thematic one is realized in constant search of new forms of the educational process organization, in the integral manner incorporating forming influence of changing segments of reality and spontaneous activity of the learning. This tendency fell short of reflexion in a new type of lesson which has received the “multiperspective teaching” name («mehrperspektivischer Unterricht»), developed by cIEL-Retlingen independent research group [12].

The gnoseological basis of this concept is the idea that children “are already directly “built” into everyday reality, and, taking direct part in its various processes, influence its diverse displays. however activity of participation (“participation” - in the developers' terminology), does not yet mean that the person masters an essence of various displays of life and can use them for decision of his problems that have become actual. From here there follows the hypothesis that the forming person needs purposeful help from without, which in practice is carried out indirectly: in the form of the others demonstration of ways of action, language exercises and games, to following to requirements of certain value orientations, choice of preferences. The activity of adults accompanies and integrates each being, once again coming into the world, into the world around. Pedagogical support of the becoming person can be realized in the form of the “enlightened education” (“aufklärender Unterricht”) advancing own child's activity, in a course of “which it is possible to find out, what influence there renders the superposition of fields on the operating in them and how, observing interests of the others, is it possible to transform this field of activity” [3, p. 6].

Proceeding from the position already classical for instrumentalism, concerning use of the phenomena and processes of the surrounding reality as a starting point of expansion of the education content, as the object of studying for schoolboys the supporters of the concept of multiperspective teaching select features of functioning of social institutes and public institutions, democratic procedures and traditions of intrafamily relations' display. Studying of such subjects, as the “Mail”, “Telegraph”, “Birthday”, “Elections”, “Television”, “children's room”, “Factory” is especially recommended [3]. A feature of the approach to studying of these spheres of life is the developers' desire, on the one hand, to present the most typical situations of participation in their work of growing up citizens, to develop their behavioural reactions adequate to requirements of a moment, and, on the other hand, thus, to avoid a known share of deliberateness and conventions. The field for decision of this contradiction the theorists of FRG search in addressing to such sphere of activity where it can be formed the child's multitude of ideas, judgements and concepts corresponding to a complex of adults' ideas of the sample. This sphere is the lesson performed according to the logic of scenic action, but not being a pure reproduction of the set plot: “The game at a scene (lesson) will not imitate the reality, but it will present it in an interesting aspect” [3, p. 6].

It is of interest a methodical study of this conceptually new position which differs from the earlier accepted in the pedagogics practice (including native practice according to which a game-dramatization of a “good” plot will lead to formation of positive representations and habits among the playing owing to an exercising orientation of the game activity) by that the game-dramatization elements do not contact the moral potential of the content which is to be performed. It consists in preliminary “home” acquaintance of the learning with features of functioning of either sphere of social life on the specially developed didactic materials. According to the authors, familiarization studying of the content of the future mise-en-scène “promotes at a stage of dramatization of complexity reduction” [3, p. 60] and allows the child to imagine in a low-key atmosphere, in as much as it possible concentrated kind, the mechanism and features of social interrelations of those actions which he will play during scenic action (lesson). The very process of dramatization is conditionally subdivided into four types of the content reduction (scientistic, connected with experience and emotional experiences, official-political, scenic), four levels of communication (memories, empirical-pragmatical, logical-grammatical, critical-theoretical), four forms of the content objectivation (presentation, objectivation, interaction, integration).

Now this concept has not yet received a sufficient practical embodiment that would help, according to g. Beck, to draw a preliminary conclusion on its forming effect [1]. We believe that, being digressed from the terminological intricacy and constructive complexity of theoretical constructions, it is possible to estimate this approach as one of variants of pedagogical modelling in which as a prototype there is the certain fragment of reality, and the model is its scenic embodiment, in this case, at a lesson. Actions which are made by the pupil at a lesson, formally corresponding to the “learning by doing” formula of j. Dewey, are conditional-reflective, showing a level of understanding of real social communications and convention of social roles. The educational effect, probably, goes beyond a lesson-dramatization and consists in formation of a wide network of associative communications helping the schoolboy to realize a degree of readiness to acceptance of both a scenic, and a life role. On this basis there can be created preconditions of more expedient decision of a specific aim; there can be comprehended variants of treatments of an offered role; there can be made decisions on necessity of search of additional materials for its more successful execution. In this vein the concept is really “multiprospective” as it promotes the pupils' cognitive activity expansion, though limits their role repertoire.

Thus, in conceptual frameworks of “learning by doing” there are developed rather versatile theoretical formations and constructs closed on the idea of use of a wide system of associative complexes and communications at stimulation of personal activity. In them it is unobtrusively traced a line on use of forming influence of activity as a value norm.

In the framework of the modern instrumentalism pedagogics of FRG there is developed rather new direction conditionally expressed by the “learning by going” formula. Theoretical execution of this direction has been prepared by practice of carrying out of familiarization and training travels and excursions being a widespread form of organization of school education and widely applied in the work of youth associations and movements of germany. In traditional practice of german schools' work the excursions, trips, travels and expeditions were considered as original bright illustrations to the studied material or, that happened less often, as a source of acquisition of an additional material to a standard content of educational subject. It was supposed that they allow to make more complete impression of connection of theoretical aspects of educational course with the practice of decision of certain complexes of utilitarian problems.

The reference to the idea of purposeful use of impressions received by the person in the course of movements, opens, according to A. Nahrstat [8], possibilities for reception of the systematized new knowledge of processes and the phenomena which are observed and experienced during trips. Sharing the instrumentalism methodological attitudes, the pedagogue uses characteristic sequences of research operations for substantiation of his approach.

The first step - definition of discrepancies causing difficulties - A. Nahrstat reduces to formulation of contradictions existing between present practice of use of trips with familiarization purposes and a level of theoretical comprehension of these aspects in the pedagogical science of FRG. Marking a high degree of their discrepancy, the pedagogue carries out the second research step - defines the framework reflecting this contradictions in the theory of pedagogical science. They are characterized by insufficiency of a degree of study of the content and volume of the categories “free time pedagogics”, “pedagogics of travel” (“Reisepädagogik”), “education during travel” (“Reiselernen”). The third operational step of the method consists in promotion of a hypothesis that use of the partially learned concept of the “pedagogics of travel” should be reduced in favour of a new category of “learning by going” offered by him - “training during movement”, in a greater degree corresponding the practice of increase of trips and moving in connection with reunion of FRG and gDR [8, p. 332]. The content of the fourth step - critical deducing of consequences - after Kenig is made by his reflexions about what are his bases for substantiation of his hypothesis. consideration of the potential “charge” of the new category passes in three planes as though corresponding to internal needs of the person for change of places: 1) seeking for a better way of life (it is expressed in the “hope” and “future” concepts); 2) attempt of the actual problems' decision (“present”, “work”); 3) studying of the already available (“past”, “culture”). The sequence of consideration of these viewpoints of measurement of reality is an illustration of what life priorities the author put in the forefront. comprehension of the pedagogically significant problematics in the categories of “search” and “attempt” reflect in whole the general orientation of the instrumentalism variant of pragmatism in his estimation by formation of the system of life values. consideration of individual activism, “doing”, instead of abstract reflection and contemplation of the fragments of cultural heritage created by others, is admitted as leading means of orientation and adaptation to changing realities of the world.

If A. Nahrstat, planning contours of the concept of education, is guided by activity of the very learning person selecting during his trips from the variety of displays of the world around those its aspects which seem to be useful and instructive for him, g. Wegener-Sp hring develops her approach to this problem from the counterpositions [14]. She believes that all casually appearing during trips new subjects, sights, thoughts, information stated by the guide, hardly perceptible displays of spiritual life of a place of stay should be an initial impulse for their further study. The concept of this pedagogue is based on generally fair idea that adults, and not only teachers and parents, organizing a trip, should be prepared for making any display of real life which has interested the child a subject of profound consideration. however, this position seems to be not very new in that its part where it is a question of situational display of infantile curiosity and ways of its satisfaction. It develops in the spirit of attitudes of j.-j. Rousseau, differing only by the fact that the routes of journeys at environs, described in the “Emile”, are jointly selected by the teacher and the pupil while modern excursion trips of children are planned by adults. Nevertheless, these differences are not so essential and it is possible to note a direct parallelism of the pedagogical constructions received by adoption and transfer of the idea stated before.

At the same time the pedagogue also opens new aspects of this problem which have not yet found elucidation in the instrumentalism pedagogics. They mention questions of the cognitive activity of adults during travelling. For designation of this circle of problems the author enters a new term - “Lernen im Urlaub” - “training during holiday” [14, p. 329], thereby aspiring to expand the content of the pedagogics subject. The content of this term include its major component - a so-called “dramaturgic action” (“dramaturgisches handeln”). Using the term of U. habermas, the theorist gives it a new sense, believing that the thought on travel induces the adult person to become the playwright and the director of the practical actions on search of places of visitings adequate to own requirements, and also “meetings, stylization of own actions” [15, p. 328]. Thereby a new accent is entered into the “experience” concept, in rather versatile manner treated within the frameworks of instrumentalism. Keeping the entered by R. Avenarius rather specific “experience element”, designated by him as the “mental” term in the form of feeling-imagination, g. Wegener-Sp hring supplements its content with such new layer as a reflexion, understood as the self-knowledge activity. Besides, in this concept there is rather rare combination of attitudes of a instrumentalism vector of consideration of the problematic with existentialism attitudes on recognition of the defining role of various chances. It is embodied in use of the “meeting” concept which in the variant offered by g. Wegener-Sp hring gets a character of search, pressure.

The considered concepts developing within the frameworks of the “learning by going” vector do not exhaust all variety of constructions which were developed in this vein, but adumbrate lines of formation the modern instrumentalism pedagogical problematics. Their characteristic feature is use of the methodological apparatus of instrumentalism in combination with active use of the content of methodologically significant ideas taken from the arsenal of other schools of thought and directions. Such approach leads to occurrence of new theoretical increments fixed in author's terms.

The newest direction of the instrumentalism pedagogical theory development they can name as a number of the author's concepts conditionally united by the “learning by feeling” formula or, in german variant, “Erlebnispädagogik” - “pedagogics of experiences”. In the pedagogics of FRG the “experience” (das Erleben) is understood as “the inseparably presented direct, not reflected self-reality (Sich-Selbstgegebenheit) of an object/world in a subject/I” [1, p. 286; 10]. Some german authors believe that the founder of this line of development of the pedagogical theory is j.-j. Rousseau, though the overwhelming majority of theorists were far from mentioning his name; they even don't deliberately interpret his ideas. The presence of references in the works executed in the vein of the “pedagogics of experiences” shows that in much more degree in works of modern theorists there have development the thoughts stated in the beginning of the ÕÕ century by K. hahn, german pedagogue, in which the influence of civilization on the person's formation is critically reinterpreted.

According to K. hahn, the civilization deforms the person both physically, giving various ersatzes in the form of tools and mechanisms reducing his functions, and morally, generating disbelief in own forces and depriving the person of empathy in view of restriction of his direct social contacts. The pedagogue puts forward consonant with ideas of j.j. Russo theses on revision of approaches to definition of the purpose of pedagogical activity which should become not a transfer of standard attitudes developed in society, but the help in the character self-education through awakening of an emotional relation to the world and other people in the live and direct form of personal experience.

The methodical ways planned by K. hahn, in his point of view, allow to realize a necessity of confrontation with self as a rational and faceless product of civilization. They are: 1) physical training strengthening vitality, mobilizing internal forces of resistance; 2) service to the near one; 3) realization of projects and expeditions, allowing to develop independence, aspiration to overcoming, creativity, etc. The concept of K. hahn contains a number of specific proposals on realization of this approach, in particular, through organization of the incomplete day schools (“Kurzschule”) which aim is reception of emotional experiences having the psychotherapeutic effect.

The stated by K. hahn idea of the individual's internal state modification through change of his emotional relation to surrounding, has had development in the modern theory of pedagogics of FRG. Now there takes place a specification of treatments of the “experience” term content which amplitude of sense fluctuates from its understanding as “spells, allowing to convince the person that he is an actor, a character” [11, p. 222] before its definition as a mental event in the person's life, a determinative in his individual history [7]. From the understanding of the parity of informative and emotional components in life activity of the becoming person there depend variants of a concrete definition of the “experience pedagogics” theories.

Some of them recognize that the knowledge basis there make feelings experienced by the person in the elementary form of organic sensations. Therefore, for example, A. Paffrath [12] considers it is necessary to create conditions that the child of the primary school age would experience a specific experience of the studied object quality - up to the neck has plunged into the earth, marsh dirt or sand, has expressed in any dance the impressions of the sensations of pleasure received from bathing in water, containing a lot of scum, and etc. Expansion of personal experience of the child in such approach is reduced to a direct “testing”, and feelings received during this research process are not a generation of intellectual experiences, but a direct consequence of the direct influence of external parameters of the certain present subjects causing an emotional state of pleasure or displeasure, but not clearing up a qualitative originality and the sense content of the object of studying. At the same time, probably, such trip can appear useful at formation of representations of sensorial models - colour, temperature, form, etc. among children of babyhood. In respect to the age contingent (junior schoolboys) specified by A. Paffrath, these actions nevertheless were late, as elementary representations of sensorial models, received in a sensual way, and corresponding perceptive actions were already generated in a mode of spontaneous education in the preschool childhood.

Within the framework of the “learning by feeling” vector there was one more interesting approach which has received the name of interactive games. An initial premise of development of this sort of concepts is true in the essence idea that game action promotes sharper experience of reality parties reproduced in the game. Feelings, requirements, standards of the role which plays the playing one, become original feelings, which he really experiences, thanks to what it is gained a unique experience of correlation of own feelings with a subject, a person, a problem or a field of activity, in which (or thanks to which presence) these feelings are formed and used as a tool of the further cognition. The feature of the interactive games aimed at decision of problems through joint activity, is the strengthened attention to the procedural parties of interaction of the playing: “there is no victors and the vanquished, no pressure of competition” [12, p. 225].

Declaring as a pedagogical aim of this sort of games prompting finding of ways, development of strategies, organizers of game actions think out their plot and conditions by themselves, leaving as the child's field of creativity only a concrete definition of the very game action and its subsequent analysis. So, “the Blind” game, which sense consists in entry of blind-folded players into the square drawn on a floor, holding a common rope together with other children, enriches, according to its developers, new impressions about life of a blind man and on the basis of comprehension of feeling of defencelessness, dependence causes empathy, reflexion, at a level of feeling of compassion brings a playing child to a question on how blind children learn the world, how sense organs can be made active for mastering the reality and survival. The rope receives the status of a symbol of association, a multiple-valued allegory which sense is not utilitarian and is subconsciously read out by everyone. There are developed games with the set rules [5]: for example, the “Acid pond” game in which by joint efforts it is necessary to get an imagined subject from a pond with acid, the “Spidery network”, which problem consists in overcoming of cells of a network of the different size, and the others in which a game problem can be solved only by joint efforts of the playing. Numerous plots on a basis of socio-dramatizations (“children's parliament”, “Sponsor”, etc.), having imitating and artificial character are also offered.

Estimating an interactive direction of the modern german instrumentalism, it is possible to draw a conclusion that their witty content does not correspond to the motivation of children's creative game, the push to which development is given by the direct contact to the external world, instead of the pedagogues assigned task. The game reflects directly interested, mediated by the whole human interrelations, and, consequently, emotionally experienced relation of the person to the surroundings. Leaving the child an open space only for search of a way of rational operating, german pedagogues transform the interactive games in the didactic ones, reaching with their help an unequivocally exercising effect.

The newest interesting direction, developed within the framework of the “learning by feeling” approach, is use of the feelings reflecting the generalized relation of the person to the reality (humour, comic, irony, tragical, etc.), as tools of the further development of the world. This line finds its reflexion in numerous editions for children - magazines, newspapers, film- and a video production, textbooks and manuals.

In the educational books published for schoolboys, there often takes place the non-standard material feed aimed at formation of estimated judgements concerning the stated material. On an example of the contents of the textbook on german language [7] we would show typical techniques of formation of these feelings. Most often there are the materials helping by means of comic or humour feeling to find out in a person, a subject or an act the simultaneously positive and negative properties or discrepancy to requirements of a real situation. They accept following forms of objectivization: caricatures, drawings containing comparisons of consequences of following to a norm and abnormality, tasks aiming at the analysis and the description of these drawings, colouring, offering to express by the colour the relation to a represented action. The materials having a tragical charge are constructed on demonstration of actual interrelation of good and evil: contrast drawings, texts interpreting at the emotional level the content of ethical and aesthetic categories, containing cautions from the acts able to have undesirable consequences. The special role is played by the exercises inducing the child to understand in actions of other people, first of all, that is already implanted in his personal emotional experience. They focus, first of all, on search of analogies of tragical experiences or events, on their repeated experience, reconsideration and revaluation from the generalized positions. At this step of experience emotions, experiences and feelings as though “conduct” the cognition, promote development of the intellectual sphere through penetration of an organic affective component into it.

Thus, the pedagogical constructions which have had development within the framework of three above-named concepts represent rather various constructs, developed with different degree of depth and in an unequal measure embodied in practice. covering various segments of reality, they are developed by a principle of interaddition, however, trying to prove use of the processes of “doing”, “movement” and “feeling” as the effective mechanisms allowing the person to master the surrounding reality, leave beyond the bounds of its special consideration such a major “tool” of cognition as thinking, the person's ability to develop new concepts and to operate with them.

References

pedagogical instrumentalism specification

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