Coastal regions of Ukraine: governance transformation amid the Russian invasion

Amid the overall decrease of maritime cargo flows, the governance of coastal regions needs to focus on supporting the maritime cluster and creating favorable conditions for businesses to maintain operation under Ukrainian jurisdiction. Several studies suggest that maritime firms' locations (i.e., maritime law, P&I clubs, insurance brokers, classification societies, consultancy, surveyors, and maritime organizations) are mainly linked to the presence of a port industry and other maritime firms rather than to the mere presence of commodity flows (Akhavan et al., 2020). Therefore, it is essential for authorities to send a clear signal that plans for both the wartime and post-war development of ports and related infrastructure are on the table.

To that end, the Black Sea Grain Initiative ensured that not only are world hunger issues addressed and agricultural products from Ukraine exported timely but also enabled the three largest ports of Ukraine (Odesa, Pivdennyi, and Chornomorsk) to continue to work, contributing to the preservation of jobs and economic support for the state in difficult times. As of the beginning of February 2023, the total quantity of commodities shipped is 19.9 million tons, the main components of which were corn (47%) and wheat (29%) (Black Sea Grain Initiative Vessel Movements, n.d.; What has been shipped, n.d.). The start of the Grain Initiative in August 2022 ensured a gradual reorientation of the Danube ports to other previously uncharacteristic cargo types. For example, in February 2023, a new cargo flow of citrus fruits from Egypt came to the port of Reni for the first time. The unloading of vessels takes place using the "vessel-road transport” technology. Traditionally, citrus fruits were trans-shipped through the ports of Odesa (in 2019 - 40,400 tons; in 2020 - 26,500 tons; in 2021 - 14,300 tons; in 2022 - 7,600 tons) and Chornomorsk (in 2019 - 74,100 tons, in 2020 - 43,000 tons, in 2021 - 35,500 tons, in 2022 - 16,800 tons; Port Reny has attracted new cargo traffic, 2023). However, shippers had to find another method to deliver citrus fruits to consumers due to the restriction of said ports' operations to goods permitted within the Black Sea Grain Initiative. At the same time, in autumn-winter 2022-2023, the inhibition to the Black Sea Grain Initiative vessels caused by Russian inspections (Grain Initiative: the world loses millions of tons of Ukrainian foodstuffs every month due to actions of Russia, 2023; Lipchansky, 2023) significantly reduced the intensity of exports and became a bottleneck for all transport connections.

Problems with transport connections between large traders and ports were characteristic of the Ukrainian transport sector even prior to the war (Brznenko & Ptashuk, 2020; Transport collapse: a hundred grain trucks are waiting in line for unloading at the port of Odessa, 2015). These remain unresolved to this day, despite Ukraine's long-term leadership position in the world market of agricultural products. In addition, this actualizes the importance of the development and interaction of land and water transport connections in the coastal regions, defines the problem areas of their administration, and ensures their efficiency.

Solving these problems is possible under the joint efforts of stakeholders, including state and local authorities, grain traders, truckers, and grain terminals. Proposals for the unloading of transport communications include the following methods: 1) collecting grain in elevators along rivers and exporting by barges for trans-shipment to sea vessels - in this way, roads are saved, car traffic in cities decreases, the transport arm for vehicles decreases and, consequently, production costs decrease; 2) the use of rail transport; 3) the construction of bypass routes and roads to terminals and ports without using city streets; 4) the creation of accumulation areas at terminals to absorb the concentration of cars instead of along highways and city streets; 5) the formation of electronic queues (Todurov, 2022). For example, success has been had building an overpass and conveyor lines to transport grain over the "Pivdennyi - Odesa" highway (History of "Neptune”).

2. Coastal Regions' Governance and Inland Connectivity

Maritime transport is the backbone of international trade and the global economy. Over 80% of the volume of international trade in goods is carried by sea; this percentage is even higher for most developing countries (Launch of the Review of Maritime Transport, 2022). However, the maritime industry is vulnerable to disruptions of connectivity and supply chains caused by various crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic or ongoing Russo-Ukrainian armed conflict, to which the flexibility of the available capacities may be the most optimal response (Rozic et al., 2022). Furthermore, beginning from the Crimean occupation in 2014, the Ukrainian maritime industry and port infrastructure of coastal regions has experienced constant military threats, both hybrid and direct, which have led to annual decreases in cargo turnover (Kormych & Averochkina, 2022).

Coastal regions' optics enable a broader examination of connectivity issues than mere maritime transport and port infrastructure. If land transport issues go beyond marine policies, then the inclusion of the river segment of waterways enables the formation of systems of feeder deliveries inland. These may contribute to both the coastal and inland regions of Ukraine. The development of connections between coastal regions and the main inland cities of Ukraine are critical given the lack of clarity over relations with Russia and Belarus, even after the armed conflict settlement. Hence, the east and north of Ukrainian land frontiers will likely be excluded from transport connections for a long period. Moreover, spatial structures and international trade are closely interrelated, and the size of coastal cities increases the greater the distance to their (inland) core region and the worse their transport conditions (Ducruet & Guerrero, 2022). However, feeder types of transportation do not have territorial universality and require the equipment of ports and terminals; together with the unfolding logistics networks and the seasonality of river transport, this complicates their stable functioning (Aleshinsky et al., 2015, p. 19). In addition, climate change poses a particular risk, leading to a decrease in the year's water levels (Ivashko, 2021). For instance, during summer 2022, the drought caused the river shipping crisis and practically paralyzed the inland waterways in Europe (Wilkes et al., 2022).

In most of the seaports of Ukraine, sea and river vectors were historically combined. Therefore, the Ukrainian Maritime Doctrine draws attention to the importance of the development of inland water transport in general; the infrastructure of inland waterways, river ports, and terminals (section "National interests at sea"); the use of inland waterways, primarily the Dnipro, Danube rivers, Desna, and Southern Bug to expand the cargo and logistics base of maritime and mixed river-sea transportation (section "Threats to national security in the field of maritime activities"); the need to implement a comprehensive program for the development of shipping on rivers; and the need to increase volumes and reorientate outgoing cargo flows to seaports from highways to river communications (chapter "Development of the maritime industry”), etc. At the same time, the draft Strategy for the Development of Inland Water Transport until 2031 and the plan of measures for its implementation have yet to be approved.

Nevertheless, the burden of drafting respective policies is not limited to central authorities as the need for marine planning processes at the regional or municipal level, rather than purely national, is now broadly recognized throughout European countries (Howells & Ramirez-Monsalve, 2022). This results in the idea of shifting governance over coastal areas by introducing a multilevel aspect by: 1) power devolution from central to local government; 2) increased international cooperation; 3) balancing power sharing between governments and civil society (Ministry of Environmental Protection and Regional Development of the Republic of Latvia, 2021). The core idea is that the power that a spatial plan has to take effect and be implemented cannot be separated from the mutual power relations between the organizations and actors that are its subject (Stojanovic & Gee, 2020).

Local authorities represent the next level of coastal regions' governance. Ukrainian Maritime Doctrine formally emphasizes the role of local administrations as a tool for decentralizing the processes of organization and coordination of maritime complexes and ensuring the balanced development of coastal regions. Local authorities are better positioned to be aware of regional problems and needs. First, this concerns developing and equipping sea and river ports, related infrastructure, the training and promotion of personnel, the stimulation of scientific research, and reforming approaches to governance. However, the authority of local self-government bodies is mainly limited to coastal environmental issues (Law on Local Self-Government in Ukraine, Article 33; Water Code of Ukraine, Articles 6, 66, 67, 88; Law on Environmental Protection, Articles 6, 11, 35). This clearly indicates the necessity to expand the powers of local authorities over coastal governance. There is some progress at least - the stimulation and support of local initiatives regarding the effective use of the internal potential of regions are defined as one of the directions of state regional policy following Article 6 of the Law of Ukraine on the Basics of State Regional Policy.

However, local authorities of coastal regions typically possess limited capacity regarding human resources, governance instruments and economic options, which considerably affects their efficiency. The issue may be mitigated by the development of collaborative "bottom-up” governance models which feature broad stakeholder involvement (Lagzdina et al., 2017). The latter leads us to the third level of governance, which should be distinguished from the local one - the level of individual seaports. The expansion of opportunities for their modernization is possible only if the current system of distribution of profits of these state-owned enterprises is revised and the authority to administer port fees is returned, an authority which was canceled with the entry into force of the updated port legislation and the formation of the Ukrainian Sea Ports Authority (USPA). At the same time, the internal USPA aims of counteracting corruption and ensuring the targeted use of funds remain essential (USPA officials were exposed for misappropriation of funds: they embezzled 90 million during the deepening of the seabed in the port of Odesa region, 2023; Nikitin & Popadiuk, 2015). There has been considerable discussion about the main stakeholders role in managing coastal regions at the individual port level. Even though public stakeholders play a major role, the entrepreneurial sphere and intermediate bodies (associations and unions) also shape the territorial and port governance. Ship-owners play a rather solitary role; nevertheless, they exert significant influence (Loubet & Serry, 2022).

An example of a new infrastructural regional project that has already been implemented is the restoration at the end of August 2022 of the railway connection between Odessa and the Danube ports through the territory of Moldova (Ukrzaliznytsia restored the section that connected Ukraine and Moldova in Odesa region, 2022). Unfortunately, the implementation of this initiative occurred under the influence of war risks, the damage to the railway bridge across the Dniester estuary (Poletti, 2022), and the limited functioning of seaports (Devitt et al., 2022). At the same time, the search for new cooperation mechanisms must be constantly carried out, especially in the coastal and border regions, which also have access to the river inland and international trade routes.

The "Danube” direction of the development of inland water transport and its infrastructure should be singled out due to the inclusion of the inland waterways of Ukraine to TEN-T. Furthermore, it is the Danube region that currently most demonstrates the tendency to create logistics hubs (grain direction). Indeed, their formation has already begun - LLC "SP Nibulon” in October 2022 completed the first construction stage of a new grain terminal in Izmail, Odesa region. As this direction received the most active implementation in 2022 and will be further updated and developed through the renovation of the Danube ports and accompanying infrastructure (An impetus for the development of the Danube region has been received - Volodymyr Kozakevych, 2022; Moskalenko, 2022), it should therefore be especially noted in policy documents. The most recent (October 2021) program document of the maritime industry, the Marine Environmental Protection Strategy of Ukraine, notes that its implementation will contribute to the balanced development of coastal regions and create positive trends in the socioeconomic and ecological development of southern Ukraine. The latter document is derived from Ukrainian obligations under the Association Agreement with the EU and Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy. However, it is aimed at the ecological aspects of the development of coastal regions.

3. Coastal Regions, Integrated Management, and Maritime Regionalism

The integrated approach has become the standard for the administration of activities in the coastal regions of many countries. In Europe, this was facilitated by the Model Law on the Sustainable Management of Coastal Zones and the European Code of Conduct for Coastal Zones (1999). In the USA, coastal zone management programs were launched in the late 1960s. At the global level, this approach was also supported at The World Coast Conference (Netherlands, 1993). As noted by Eger et al. (2021), integrated coastal management offers an alternative to the sectoral management of coastal and marine social-ecological systems and is typically characterized in the literature by the following features:

• effective inclusion of diverse actor groups and knowledge types;

• formal structures;

• innovative mechanisms (e.g., structures or arrangements);

• horizontal linkages;

• iterative, reflective or reflexive;

• multiple, balanced objectives;

• connection to local context.

The Ukrainian Maritime Doctrine provides for the development of integrated coastal management, emphasizing that implementing an integrated approach to managing maritime activities in coastal regions is essential to their sustainable development. To some extent, integrated management is also addressed in the State Regional Development Strategy for 2021-2027 in the section "Tasks in the direction of Implementation of maritime potential for the development of coastal regions and reproduction of the natural environment of the Azov and Black Seas.” The Marine Environmental Protection Strategy recognizes the absence of the integrated management of natural resources of the Azov and Black Seas (section "Analysis of the current state of affairs, trends and justification for the need to solve the identified problems”) and the need for its creation by 2024. The Draft Law on the Coastal Strip of the Seas defines the integrated management of the coastal strip of the seas as the balanced and comprehensive management of environmental usage within the coastal strip of the seas, considering ecological, economic, and social interests aimed at preserving its ecosystems and landscapes for present and future generations (Article 2). It is also proposed that the integrated management of the coastal strip be understood as the development of the coastal strip and its management in combination with ecological goals and elements of mutual influence (Report on research work scientific and methodological support for the creation and development of networks of protected marine water areas and coastal territories, 2019, p. 52).

At the same time, in many cases, the question arises of how truly integrated is such integrated management. For example, the Integrated Coastal Management Initiative has been created as a measure of adaptation to climate change (Integrated Coastal Management as an adaptation to climate change measure, n.d.), i.e., its main purpose is nature protection. To this end, the Integrated Coastal Management Act (2008) of South Africa is a notable exception, providing for the coordinated and integrated management of the coastal zone by all spheres of government following the principles of cooperative management, and establishing the National Coastal Committee as well as defining its functions. The creation of such a state structure corresponds to SDG 14. Furthermore, it helps to solve the problem which occurs when strategies and policies for biodiversity and the environment, fisheries, and climate change are developed and implemented by diverse agencies (Vierros, 2017). In Ukraine, at the end of 2022, there was a merger of the two ministries - the Ministry of Infrastructure and the Ministry of Development of Communities and Territories - most heavily involved in the administration of coastal regions. At the beginning of December, the relevant decision was adopted by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine (Izvoschikova, 2022), and the new Ministry of Development of Communities, Territories, and Infrastructure was created. The Regulation of the new Ministry (Resolution on some issues of activity of central executive bodies, 2022) gives it authority to determine the order of formation of the concept of integrated development of the territory of the territorial community (item 41, item 4).

It should be noted that integrated management is close to the ideas of maritime regionalism as a vector of international cooperation. The basis of such cooperation is a specific water area's geographical (regional) peculiarity. According to Adewumi (2021), regionalism in maritime governance comprises the institutionalization and coordination of efforts geared at common coastal and marine challenges, with cumulative effects that involve different actors via binding or non-binding rules, regulations, actions, strategies, and policies enforced by regionally mandated organizations. MARPOL 73/78, according to which the Black Sea is defined as a "special area,” is an example of the manifestation of maritime regionalism in the aspect of international legal regulation of a specific type of maritime activity in a particular area of marine space (universal international legal regulation of a global nature). The regional approach is the basis of the Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution (1992) and other regional agreements in the field of marine environment protection. It was also actively used in UNCLOS'82, specifically in the regulations on the cooperation of states located on the coast of enclosed and semi-enclosed seas (part IX. Enclosed or semienclosed seas), as well as in the regional system of Port State Control. However, within the framework of traditional maritime regionalism, the land component, and the connection with other elements (inland waterways and other types of transport, border cooperation) are merely considered. Instead, it is mainly aimed at building a supranational, regional mechanism to administrate the regimes of the relevant water areas; the adjacent land areas act as auxiliaries. A comprehensive approach to such areas is reflected in the concept of the integrated management of coastal (or seaside) zones (regions), based on Agenda 21 (Chapter 17 "Protection of the oceans, all kinds of seas, including enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, and coastal areas and the protection, rational use and development of their living resources”). This approach is still largely lacking program documents on the development of maritime activities in the coastal regions of Ukraine.

Conclusions

The experience of almost a year of work under the conditions of the Russian invasion shows the growing importance of the integrated management of coastal zones in mitigating the risks and consequences of war and ensuring post-war sustainable development. Coastal regions should be considered leaders in creating jobs, ensuring connectivity, and infrastructure development. Building the effective governance of coastal regions in Ukraine requires the following steps: 1) making changes to program documents and current legislation that strengthen the regional approach and consider land-sea interactions; 2) focusing on a combination of sea and inland water transport beyond mere environmental protection measures; 3) simultaneous planning for during the war and post-war development; 4) an emphasis on municipal and local participation in planning, with broad stakeholder involvement; 5) consideration when introducing integrated management in coastal regions; 6) the implementation of EU best governance practices.

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