Fictional discourse synonyms: discourse featudes, translation options

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Contents

Introduction

Charter 1. Synonymy as a research problem and translation challenge

1.1 Semantic survey of synonyms

1.2 Theoretical background of synonyms translation

Chapter 2. Fictional discourse synonyms: discourse featudes, translation options

2.1 Singularity of DH. Lawrence texts analysis

2.2 Options in the translation of fictional discourse synonyms

2.2.1 Lexical transformations in the translation of fictional discourse synonyms

2.2.2 Grammatical transformations in the translation of fictional discourse synonyms

2.2.3 Lexical and grammatical transformations in the translation of fictional discourse synonyms

Conclusion

Bibliography

List of data sources

List of reference sources

Annex

Резюме

Introduction

Relevance of subject. The mankind as look has begun the history with that moment when has risen from all fours and the beginning is hot food, but we start speaking about homo sapience only with that moment when there was Word. "In language and through language the individual and society mutually determine each other. The person always felt, and poets often sang of fundamental power of language which creates the imagined reality, animates inanimate, allows to see that has not arisen yet, restores that has disappeared. Therefore in many mythologies where it was required to explain how at the beginning of times something could arise from anything, as the creating principle of the world chose non-material and sovereign essence - the Word" [8, page 145]

Lexico-semantic groups unite words which describe various parties of the same general concept, that is, they include synonyms.

Synonyms play important role in communication and give different shades to way of expression: they can make the statement more emotional, give it expressiveness, definitely direct esthetic perception.

It is obvious to seize knowledge of synonyms, the student needs to work with the art text. To become rather qualified teacher of foreign language, insufficiently practical command of the language, it is necessary to have extensive knowledge of different types of synonyms, to interpret the text, to translate it, showing word meaning shades.

It is represented that justified and most right way of acquaintance of students foreigners with synonyms of English is work with the art text. In practical work of the teacher it is obviously important most to investigate connotive word meanings.

Practical importance of work.

The results which are carried out during research can be used in practice of teaching English; in high school courses of lexicology, in translation practice, when studying discipline "Analytical reading".

Novelty of research consists in insufficient study of lexicon, especially, in lexicological aspect on material of art texts.

Research objective to reveal synonyms to show them in D. G. Lawrence's story "White stocking"

Research problems:

to study theoretical literature on synonyms;

to find all synonyms in D. G. Lawrence's story "White stocking";

to transfer examples from synonyms the translation into Ukrainian;

to draw conclusion on this research.

Object of research is D. G. Lawrence's work "White stocking"

Material of research are synonyms

The structure of work includes table of contents, introduction, 2 chapters, the conclusion, the list of references.

semantic synonym translation

Charter 1. Synonymy as a research problem and translation challenge

1.1 Semantic survey of synonyms

It is generally accepted that English is one of the most useful languages used by people around the world as a lingua franca. With English as an international language, people from different countries who speak different native languages are able to communicate with one another (Kirkpatrick, 2007). The language enables them to understand their interlocutor's speech. Meanwhile, they can also impart information to others through English. As a language with a long history and considerable benefits, it is not surprising to learn the fact that there exist millions of words in English. According to several studies, English tends to have larger number of words, if not the largest, than many other languages (Crystal, 2007). Some of the words have been borrowed from other languages (Finegan, 2007). Quite a few English learners could notice that there are a number of words, known as synonyms, which share similar senses of meaning or semantic features, e.g. big and large. The concept of synonyms plays an important role in English. Learners who wish to improve their English skills really need to be aware of and master synonyms. When writing an essay, for instance, they may learn how to replace a word with its synonym so that their readers will not get bored with the piece of work.

However, it is often found that, in fact, not all synonyms can be used interchangeably in every context. One has to be used in a particular context, whereas another is appropriate for some other situations. Some synonyms differ in terms of connotations they express, and some are different in regions in which they are used. (Trudgill, 1990; Jackson & Amvela, 2000).

Synonymy in a language can be viewed as a basic concept in lexicology. When meaning relations of words are studied, most researchers are inclined to prioritize the concept of synonyms in their investigation (Harley, 2006). Etymologically speaking, the term synonymy originates from a Greek word sunonumon meaning `having the same name' (Jackson & Amvela, 2000, p. 92). Linguists interested in a study of meaning in language, known as semanticists, use this term to refer to a relationship of similarity or sameness of meaning between two or more words (Jackson & Amvela, 2000).

Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2009, p. 1479) defines synonym as “a word or phrase which has the same or nearly the same meaning as another word or phrase in the same language”, such as small and little. In a study of synonyms, two major types, strict and loose synonyms, are worth being discussed.

Synonyms are normally divided into two main types: strict (absolute) and loose synonyms. As for strict synonymy, two words are considered strict synonyms if they can be used interchangeably in all of their possible contexts of use. Furthermore, the substitution of one word for the other must not result in a change in meaning, style, and connotation of what is being said or written [1]. In this case, it is the speaker's or writer's choice to use one or the other since either can fit in the same context.

Still, according to the above definition, such strict synonyms are extremely rare or not existent [2]. As a matter of fact, strict synonymy is considered uneconomical since it leads to unnecessary redundancy in a language.

Normally if a language begins to have a word which can fully replace another in every context of use, one of them tends to somehow change its meaning or become out of use. For example, according to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), in the history of English, the Old English word frumsceaft was widely used. Then with the flood of French words in the late 14th century, the word creation was borrowed and it was used alongside with frumsceaft . Later on, creation took over frumsceaft completely in all contexts, making frumsceaft become obsolete. Such phenomenon is claimed to prevent the occurrences of strict synonyms in English (Jackson & Amvela, 2000).

With regard to loose synonyms, they are the most commonly found in a language. When linguists talk about synonyms, they generally refer to varying degrees of loose synonymy, “where we identify not only a significant overlap in meaning between two words, but аlso some contexts at least where they cannot substitute for each other.” [10 p. 94].

Clear examples of loose synonyms in English are the words mad and insane, both of which generally mean `mentally ill'. They are interchangeable in such a context as The team of psychiatrists found out that he is mad/insane. However, when mad means `angry' as in Lisa is very mad at Tim now., the word insane cannot be used in this context without a change in meaning, as in *Lisa is very insane at Tim now. Additionally, the use of insane here also violates the grammatical patterns since the combination insane at are not likely to occur in native speakers' speech.

The above examples indicate that synonyms can be interchangeably used where their meanings overlap, but where a meaning is beyond the shared area, one cannot substitute for the other (Thornbury, 2002).

Synonyms in English can be differentiated according to the following criteria:

The first criterion one can use to distinguish synonyms is the regions where these words exist. English-speaking people speaking different dialects often use different words to refer to the same person, thing, or concept. For example, British children in a theme park would urge their parents to buy them candyfloss, a type of sweet made from sticky threads of sugar around a stick. In contrast, American children in the same situation would ask for cotton candy and get the same kind of sweet. Accordingly, it may be concluded that both candyfloss and cotton candy are the same, differing only in that the former is used in British English, whereas the latter belongs to American English.

The list below provides sample pairs of British-American synonyms.

BritishAmerican

footballsoccer

American footballfootball

aerialantenna

windscreenwindshield

aeroplaneairplane

vestundershirt

liftelevator

tramstreetcar

In addition, it is also found that synonyms different in terms of dialects are also common even in the same country. In England, Londoners tend to use one word, while those who are from Bradford regularly use another for the same referent. For instance, armpit is used in London dialect, whereas armhole is found in Bradford dialect [4]

The style or formality of the context in which synonyms occur is the second criterion one may depend upon when distinguishing synonymous words. In a pair of synonyms, one has a tendency to occur in a more formal context than the other. For example, the words comprehend and intoxicated are obviously more formal than understand and drunk respectively (LDOCE, 2009). One is not expected to use an informal word in a very formal situation and vice versa. It is very strange to see a notice in an elevator saying no more than 20 guys rather than no more than 20 persons. The word guys is much less formal than persons. By the same token, it will strike anyone as odd if their close friend in a nightclub says Today my Dad sharply rebuked me in class. The use of rebuked as opposed to scolded sounds too formal for such a relaxing atmosphere.

The list below gives pairs of words, one of which is formal and the other of which is less formal.

In conclusion, the study has shown that most synonyms in English are loose ones. They are not interchangeable in every context of use. Their differences lie in many factors, viz. different denotative meanings, dialects, formality of the context, connotations, grammatical patterns, and collocations.

1.2 Theoretical background of synonyms translation

The term knowledge organization has at least two meanings depending on the concept of knowledge. If you concentrate on personal knowledge to which only the individual has direct access, knowledge organization indicates a mental and therefore internal process of structuring or transforming (e.g. visualizing ) knowledge. If you concentrate on public knowledge (synonym: information) which is materialized in documents (text, image, audio, video) so that principally all persons can access it, knowledge organization refers to the technical and external processes of describing and classifying information. A third definition takes a sociological perspective and indicates such social entities as knowledge organizations whose work primarily relies on knowledge (like universities); this latter meaning will not be included in this entry [8].

The theoretical background as well as the history of the term “knowledge organization” has two disciplinary roots: (a) learning and cognitive psychology and (b) information and computer sciences. The preferred perspective depends on the underlying conception of knowledge. Therefore, the term knowledge organization only can be applied when considering the concept of knowledge. There are many understandings of knowledge which differentiate its special characteristics and forms. Among others, Jean Piaget (1897 - 1980) has had great influence on the conception of knowledge.

Piaget represents a theory of genetics of cognitive structures giving the individual a crucial and active role in constructing knowledge. But the theory also considers the strong interdependence between individual constructions on the one hand and external stimuli of the external world (and their experience) on the other hand. These two complementary processes which balance this interdependence are called accommodation and assimilation.

Against this background knowledge is a very personal and mental phenomenon to which only the individual has direct access. Under this perspective you can speak about personal knowledge [9]. Personal knowledge can be of different specification (especially conceptual, visual and enactive) and is therefore more or less easy to articulate and to make explicit. Nevertheless persons can communicate and collaborate so that one must assume that there is not only implicit or idiosyncratic but also shared knowledge mostly conventionalized through language and often materialized in written, spoken or visualized documents like text, audio, image or video. Documented knowledge like this is of principally public access. Under this perspective you can speak of public knowledge or information [9].

To distinguish between personal and public knowledge is only one alternative of many to structure the domain of knowledge. But exactly this possibility can aid one to make the decision to either choose the psychological or technical discipline as the leading one for research of knowledge organization. Learning and cognitive psychology provides theoretical and empirical insights referring to personal knowledge organization which is always an internal process. Computer and information sciences in contrast deliver the scientific basis to organize public knowledge or rather information which always results in an external representation.

Internal knowledge organization: The growth of personal knowledge is part of human development and does not happen randomly but in some organized manner. There are three representational constructs describing this internal knowledge organization: semantic networks, theories and schemas (see Chi & Ohlsson 2005):

· Knowledge can be represented in semantic networks which consist of concepts (called nodes) and relations (called links). The organization of knowledge in semantic networks indicates that everything is related to everything. The quality of this organization is determined by the number and character of relations (e.g. hierarchical, temporal or causal) between concepts as well as by content similarity of concepts. So cognitive psychologists assume that knowledge in semantic networks is grouped by domain.

· Domain-specific knowledge can also be represented as theories: Theories in this sense can be well-articulated structures with core knowledge elements (big ideas) in the center and peripheral concepts around them. This attribute (that is different importance of elements) characterizes theories in expert knowledge as well as theories in novice knowledge. The latter however are rather intuitive theories lacking the depth of scientific theories of experts [14].

· The representation of knowledge in schemas results in the assumption that humans construct patterns of experience. A schema is a set of attributes (called slots) which can take on different values referring to phenomena in the external world. Schemas are typically abstract and organize knowledge about specific stimulus domains. They are retrieved as units and used to organize learning, thinking and acting.

To a certain extent internal representations like semantic networks, theories and schemas are the results of natural processes of personal knowledge organization which do not have to be externally instructed and controlled. Nevertheless there are some possibilities to foster and optimize the internal knowledge organization through educational support. Nearly all proposals which do this stem from the research of (cognitive) learning strategies and are based upon the principle of producing external representations. These external representations can be verbal, pictorial or something in between, e.g. maps and other logical pictures:

· You can foster internal knowledge organization by articulating knowledge verbally or in written form. To think out loud can help to structure knowledge because transforming implicit knowledge in conventionalized words fosters the construction or retrieval of schemas. Furthermore, specific programs have been developed to support knowledge generation and organization through writing and text production respectively [14].

· A widely used strategy in organizing knowledge recurs to visualization. Psychological research on memory shows that there are spontaneous productions of internal imageries probably influencing the internal knowledge organization. So you can use external imagery-strategies to foster these processes. But there is greater evidence in the surplus of logical forms of visualizations like diagrams and maps. Because of the structural similarity to assumed semantic networks (as internal knowledge representations) concept mapping is a widespread strategy or cognitive tool to produce effective external representations.

Processes and methods of internal knowledge organization are often integrated in educational settings (as learning strategies), but they are also part of so-called personal knowledge management strategies through which adults should optimize their personal growth as well as work performance (Holsapple, 2004).

External knowledge organization: The growth of public knowledge, or rather information, is part of the socio cultural development and needs sophisticated forms of organization because of the increasing amount of scientific knowledge focused in this context. There are traditional and technology-based forms for external knowledge organization in order to gather, describe, index, classify, store and find documents (e.g. Hjшrland, 2008):

· Information can manually be indexed and classified like in former libraries or archives. This procedure is slow but brings the advantage that persons (librarians) work with meaning in practice. However today all information institutions are using computer systems for archiving, identifying and retrieving information relevant to specific purposes [14].

· So information also can automatically be structured in very different ways using insights of linguistics, logic, mathematic and philosophy. Information scientists know a lot of methods for organizing information, e.g. from the general to the specific, facet-analytical, bibliometric, user-oriented etc.

· Like personal knowledge information can be visually represented using new information technologies: Visualization presupposes well-structured information and greatly facilitates the retrieval of information which most notably is an advantage with huge amounts of information.

· For a short time even technology-based information can also be socially organized for example through social tagging or social bookmarking. Instead of expert taxonomies leading the external knowledge organization so-called folksonomies are structuring the public knowledge on the Internet.

Processes and methods of external knowledge organization are not only used in libraries and archives, but also in knowledge-based organizations engaging in organizational knowledge management where knowledge organization covers not all but an important part of management tasks (Holsapple, 2004).

Knowledge organization is an interdisciplinary challenge combining several disciplines which do not use the same concepts of knowledge or information. Communication between these disciplines is rare and difficult because there is little grounding referring to the underlying core concept. As a consequence, different scientific camps which widely ignore each other are developing although psychological and technical processes of knowledge organization should correspond in many contexts (e.g. education and work place). Beneath this practical argument there are strong theoretical reasons for collaboration between scientists of different origin: (a) Internal knowledge organization often needs external representations as well as technical tools to stimulate and support them. Further research has to analyze the interrelation between methods based upon cognitive and learning psychology on the one hand and computer and information science on the other hand. (b) External knowledge organization in contrast presupposes objectives and criteria which are only possible on the basis of internal representations of persons engaging in articulation, visualization other forms of externalization. Perhaps the field of visualization is a seminal research object of research which connects different disciplines working on knowledge organization (see Tergan & Keller, 2005): Information and knowledge visualization share the common goal to organize information and knowledge for better access, search and understanding and use comparable techniques and methods. Joint research can be noticed with concept mapping as a method of graphical representation fostering internal and external forms of knowledge organization for different purposes.

Chapter 2. Fictional discourse synonyms: discourse featudes, translation options

2.1 Singularity of D. Lawrence texts analysis

Lawrence David Herbert was born on September 11, 1885 in the settlement Eastwood (the county Nottingempshir). David Herbert Lawrence was the fourth child in family of the miner and former school teacher. Its rough relationship with the father, inclined to violence, and passionate attachment to distinguished, socially ambitious mother in has much influenced its subsequent work. In 1898 David Herbert Lawrence has got grant in the Nottingham Higher School, and in 1906 - pedagogical education at Nottingham university. Taught at elementary school of Croydon and has started writing verses and stories.

In July, 1914 David Herbert Lawrence married Frida von Richtchofen. Disappointed in England and unwillingness to accept his creativity, Herbert Lawrence in 1919 together with Frida has forever left the homeland. Poor health of David Herbert Lawrence has sharply reeled in 1930, and in May of the same year he has died of tuberculosis in the city of Vens in France [1]

David Herbert Lawrence remains to one of darlings and readable authors in the homeland, in England and, perhaps, and in all Europe. The most important part of its extensive heritage is made by novels. The best of them - "Sons and lovers", "Rainbow", "Women in love", "Lady Chatterli's lover" - became classics of English-speaking literature of the XX century.

Our task is to reproduce semantization of the story of David Herbert Lawrence "White stocking" which is devoted to global subject of all times and the people - love subject. The love subject long since involved writers and poets. And, therefore, in works of many writers it is possible to track the thin line of the above-named subject.

If to look at the name of the story, that, it is possible to understand that the outcome or plot of the story will be under construction on this subject, that is white stocking. Really, in the middle of the novel we learn why the gift has been sent not in simple box, namely, in white stocking. This subject became the contention reason in family Viston.

So, the main characters of the story are Elsie and Tad Viston. "But still, when she had gone out of the room, he felt as if all his light and warmth were taken away …" (1, c.54) We understand that this quote the author wants to show that in spite of the fact that heroes are married two years, their feelings have not died away and still remain gentle and warm.

One morning, when heroes have already woken up, at door someone has called, and Elsie has run to open. The mail carrier was on the threshold and has stretched to the girl parcel. In it there was card on St. Valentine's Day. Also, the girl has got white stocking in which she has found box with pearl ear rings from box. "She stood still to look at herself, bridling her head in the dignified fashion. Then she simpered at herself. Catching her own eye, she could not help winking at herself and laughing (1, c.56). According to this quote we can see that the gift to the girl very much is pleasant, and, to leave and furthermore ornament is not going to remove from itself.

Tad who has entered the room has taken an interest that Elsie held in hand, and from whom this gift. The young man very much was surprised when his wife has answered that has no idea who is sender. "Theyve not rights to send you valentines now" - he said (1, c.58). The author has shown it the owner though at first the story, the reader and does not guess it. In my opinion, Tad should not have spoken so to the wife because the girl is not guilty at all that have sent it gift. At breakfast Elsie has assumed that Sam Adams whom she saw recently could send gift to her. Tad has started accusing her that it met this person.

When Tad has left for work, the girl with quiet soul could wear earrings, her soul how many will want. Life with the husband was for it ordinary and routine, and therefore, she was confused at all by quarrel with Tad. "She did not think about her husband" (1, c.64). On the following lines it is possible to understand that life was monotonous and boring and, in my opinion, rather has bothered the girl. "He was the permanent basis from which she took these giddy little flights into nowhere. At night, like chickens and curses, she would come home to him, to roost" (1, c.64).

Till marriage with Tad, Elsie worked at warehouse at Sam Adams. The man differed in love to girls that has not avoided also Elsie. Adams in every way tried to be pleasant to the young and beautiful girl. "He would come into the warehouse dressed in rather sporting reefer coat, of fawn color, and trousers of fine black-and-white check, cap with a big peak and a scarlet carnation in his button-hole, to impress her" (1, c.65).

But Viston already at that time looked after her.

Sam Adams brought together every Christmas friends for holiday. Viston and Elsie have been invited including. At entrance, Adams registered cards of each guest on dances. Elsie and Tad first did not want this registration, but Sam has insisted on it.

Danced the first dance of Elsie with Viston. Reading, we understand that process of dance very much was pleasant to the girl. "He seemed to draw her close in to him by some male warmth of attraction, so that she became all soft and pliant to him, flowing to his form, whilst he united her with him and they lapsed along in one movement (1, c.68). It seemed that Tad puts all the love to the girl, during this dance.

When the turn to dance with Adams has come, on the one hand, Elsie liked to dance, and with another, the girl looked for any pretext to escape from the hall and to find Viston. "When she got a chance, she escaped from the dancing-room to the card-room" (1, c.70).

Soon, Adams has found it in this room and has again invited to dance. The girl has unwillingly agreed. But, in beat dance, Elsie liked being pleasant as Adams dances. More precisely, she admired the movements of this person. And, appear, has been completely satisfied with dance. "But she herself was held real against her partner, and it seemed she was connected with him, as if the movements of his body and limbs were her own movements, yet not her own movements - and oh, delicious! (1, c.72).

But Tad and Elsie had suited time to leave. The girl not absolutely wanted to leave this house, appear, that she has got confused between Tad and Adams. "And she, distracted, lost to herself between the opposing forces of the two men, drifted" (1, c.77).

At farewell dance with Adams, Elsie has dropped white handkerchief, but, to her surprise, it was not the scarf, but white stocking. Adams has lifted it, has put to himself in pocket. Tad, having learned that Sam of visors of stockings at Elsie has very much become angry, and, even wanted to go to talk to Adams, but Elsie has dissuaded him from this invention.

In some weeks they with Viston have got married.

And now we will return to that moment when we said that Viston, having quarreled with Elsie has left for work.

Having come in the evening home, the man has taken an interest that the wife with the white stocking received as a gift has made him. Then has told that it has burned it on fire. Having been refused, Viston has started over again to swear at Elsie and has hit her. But, has soon understood the mistake, has understood that you should not have used force so. Several minutes later Ted has learned that it is the second gift from Adams. The amethystine brooch was the first gift last year. Having forced the wife to lower gifts, it has packed them into box and has sent back to Adams. Having come back home, he has found out that Elsie still cried. Having understood the mistake, he has approached the wife and has gently embraced her. "My love - my little love - he cried, in anguish of spirit, holding her in his arms (1, c.93).

Having read the story, we understand that the author wants to show the family attitudes which happen difficult. Without having finished the old relations, you should not begin the new. Tad Vinson has understood it intuitively to keep the marriage, he has sent gifts which Adams has sent it to the wife. Showdowns were rough, but Elsie has understood that the husband loves her and has obeyed to its decision. The reader understands that it is better to leave the endured hobby in the past, and it is necessary to live in the present.

2.2 Options in the translation of fictional discourse synonyms

2.2.1 Lexical transformations in the translation of fictional discourse synonyms

Before analysing role of translation transformations in translation process of stories of D. G. Lawrence, we will consider the definitions of this term offered by the leading rewater Veda (V. N. Komissarov, L. S. Barkhudarov, Ya. I. Retsker, A. D. Schweitzer and others). So, according to L. S. Barkhudarov, translation transformations are various interlingual transformations which are carried out for achievement of translation equivalence of the translation [1, p 190]. Ya. I. Retsker calls transformations receptions of logical thinking by means of which the translator opens value of the foreign-language word in context and finds to it the Ukrainian compliance which is not coinciding with dictionary (lexical transformations) and transformations of sentence structure in translation process according to standards of the translating language (grammatical transformations). A. D. Schweitzer believes that the term "transformation" is used in theory of translation in metaphorical sense and calls transformation "transformation" [7, p 118].

Speaking about translation transformations, it should be noted lack of uniform system of classification of transformations when transfer. Ya. I. Retsker, L. S. Barkhudarov, V. N. Komissarov, A. D. Schweitzer, A. M. Fiterman, T. R. Levitskaya and others offer various divisions of translation transformations from which distinguish: 1) shifts, 2) replacements, 3) additions, 4) omissions [9].

There are many reasons, defiant lexical transformations, and completely to capture all reasons there is no opportunity. Therefore we will limit the choice only to some main reasons, causing the necessity of this kind of transformations.

In word meaning in different languages different signs of the same phenomenon or concept where the vision of the world peculiar to this language rather to carriers of this language is reflected are often allocated that inevitably creates difficulties when transfer.

"I'm getting up, Teddlinks, - said Mrs Whiston (1, с.53).

"Я встаю, Теддлінкс", - сказала Місіс Вістон.

to say - to express something using words.

"What the Hanovers got you? - Asked Whiston (1, с.53).

"Якого біса?" - Запитав Вістон.ask - to speak or write to someone in order to get information from them.

"Nothing. Cant I get up? - She replied animatedly (1, с.53).

"Нічого. Я не можу прокинутися?" - Відповіла вона жваво.

to reply - to say, write or do something as an answer.

"Rise up! - She cried, turning to him (1, с.54).

"Вставай!" - Крикнула вона йому, повернувшись.

to cry - to shout something.

."Yes" - she answered, after a moment (1, с.62).

"Так", - відповіла вона, трохи подумавши.

to answer - to give a spoken reply to a question.

."Come late, would you, - he shouted, -" like royalty "(1, с.67).

"Не могли б ви прийти пізніше, як члени королівської сім'ї?" -

крикнув он.shout - to say something in a loud voice.

He opened his mouth wide, when he spoke (1, с.67).

Він широко відкривав рот, коли говорив.

to speak - to talk to someone about something.

"Well, its my fault, not yours. You enjoy yourself - he bade her (1, с.69).

"Що ж, це моя вина, не твоя. Насолоджуйся собою", - він наказав їй.

to bade - to order someone to do something.

"Are you playing cribbage? Is it exciting? - She chattered (1, с.70).

"Ви граєте в карти? І яке це?" - Щебетала вона.

To chatter - to talk continuously in a fast informal way, usually aboutsubjects.

"That do for me, - he whispered (1, с.78).

"З мене досить", - прошепотів він.

to whisper - to say something very quietly, so that other people can not hear.

"That great hog an all, - he added (1, с.80).

"Це хамство", - додав він - to say something more that is related to what has been said already.

"Ah! - Whiston exclaimed." What does it matter? (1, с.82)

"А!" - Вигукнув Вістон. - "Що це означає?"

to exclaim - to say something suddenly and loudly, especially, because you are surprised, impressed, angry.

"And youll back-fire them stockings, Im telling you" (1, с.85).

"І ти їх спалиш, я тобі це говорю".

to tell - to give information to someone.

"Pf! - She sneered (1, с.88).

"Пф!" - Фиркнула вона. sneer - to say or utter (something) in a scornful or contemptuous manner.

"Ive not had anything to do with him, - she quavered (1, с.90).

"У мене нічого з ним не було", - вона вимовила тремтячим голосом.

to quaver - to say or sing (something) with a trembling voice.

Having conducted this research, we can draw conclusion that in this work huge number of various synonyms. They do the story nasyshchenny, more colourfully and more interesting to reading. Without them work would not be so bright. By results of research, it is possible to draw conclusion that at D. G. Lawrence's story "White stocking" there are 9 leksiko-semanichesky groups united by look value, 24 lexico-semantic groups united by move value and 15 lexico-semantic groups united by speak value. Also, thanks to semantization of the story it was succeeded to understand better his main idea and thought which the author tried to inform to readers.

2.2.2 Grammatical transformations in the translation of fictional discourse synonyms

The translation from one language on another is impossible without grammatical transformations. Grammatical transformations are first of all reorganization of the offer (change of its structure) and various replacements - both syntactic, and morphological order. Grammatical transformations are caused by various reasons - both purely grammatical, and lexical character though the main role is played by grammatical factors.

By comparison of grammatical categories and forms of English and Ukrainian languages the following phenomena usually are found: 1) absence of this or that category in one of languages; 2) partial coincidence; 3) full coincidence. Need for grammatical transformations naturally arises only in the first and second cases. In Ukrainian, in comparison with English, there are no such grammatical categories as article or gerund, and also infinitive and involved complexes and absolute nominative construction. Partial coincidence or discrepancy in value and the use of the corresponding forms and designs too demands grammatical transformations. Here it is possible to carry such phenomena as partial discrepancy of category of number, partial discrepancy in forms of passive design, incomplete coincidence of forms of infinitive and participle, some distinctions in expression of modality

Replacements - the most widespread and diverse type of translation transformations. In translation process grammatical units - forms of words, parts of speech, sentence parts, types of syntactic link etc. can be exposed to replacement.

a) Replacements of forms of the word

Nobody knew what he meant. Ніхто не знав, що він мав на увазі.

в) Replacements of sentence parts (reorganization of syntactic sentence structure)

When replacing sentence parts of the word and group of words in target text there is reorganization of the syntactic scheme of creation of the offer. The reasons of such reorganization can be various. Most often she is called by need of transfer of "communicative partitioning" of the offer of which it was talked above.

The most usual example of such syntactic reorganization - replacement of English passive design of the Russian active at which the English subject is replaced in the Russian offer with addition, standing at the beginning of the offer; English addition with by pretext at the translation into Russian becomes subject or the subject in general is absent (so-called "indefinite-personal" design); the form of passive voice of English verb is replaced with form of active voice of the Russian verb. For example:

He was given money. Йому дали грошей.

Thus, in most cases at the translation from English on Ukrainian, the Ukrainian offer it is not imposed on English, does not coincide with it on the structure. Often the structure of the Ukrainian offer in translation completely differs from structure of the English offer. In it other word order, other following of parts of the offer, often other order of arrangement of offers - main, additional and introduction. In some cases parts of speech by which members of the English offer are expressed, are transferred respectively by other parts of speech. All this explains wide use of grammatical transformations when transfer.

2.2.3 Lexical and grammatical transformations in the translation of fictional discourse synonyms

When performing any translation, and in our case it is about literary translation, the translator needs to reproduce numerous transformations for the most exact transfer of the contents of the text of the original in target language.

As illustrative material, we will give number of both lexical, and grammatical transformations from some stories of the English writer D. G. Lawrence («Жених про запас», «Сут і нки весни», «Спокусниця») translated to Ukrainian by the author of this report [3; 4]. So, in offers: "He gave his luggage to a porter" - "«Він віддав багаж носильникові» (the possessive pronoun of "his" "is lowered") [8, page 55]; "He had forgotten he was tired" - «Він забув про втому» [8, page 56] by us has used lexical transformation "omission". Sometimes omission is used owing to lack of need of the translation of each word for the English offer because of redundancy of information in Russian. Such transformation as addition it is observable in the following offers: "Oh, and this is Friday evening, and Winifred is coming just as she used to - how long ago?" [8, page 58] - «О, сьогодні ж вечір п'ятниці, і як завжди прідетУініфред - як давно« вона приходить?»; - "No - nor I you" - «Ні, і я не очікувала тебе побачити» [8, page 59]; "One goes on - remains in office, so to speak …" - " комусь подобається проводити час так, як ніби він працює в офісі»; [8, page 62]. This reception of transformation is used because "compression" is peculiar to English [6, page 98]. The English text consists generally of short offers and the use of short words and the squeezed designs is peculiar to British.

For achievement of adequacy of the translated text, the analyzed stories of the writer, translation reception "specification" is used. The specification is such lexical transformation as a result of which the word (term) of wide semantics in the original is replaced with the word (term) of narrow semantics [5, page 300]. Such way of the translation is applied when words with "indistinct" value, for example, of thing are translated, to matter, affair, unit, challenge, range, claim, concern, to go, to get, to come, to leave, to let, to be and others. Let's give examples. "She let Coutts into a small, very warm room that had a dark, foreign sheen, owing to the black of the curtains and hangings covered thick with glistening Indian embroidery and to the sleekness of some Indian ware. " - «Вона провела Куттс в невелику, але затишну кімнату і мала незвичайний вигляд, завдяки чорним штори та гардини, які були покриті товстим шаром блискучої індійської вишивки та глянцем гладких індійських керамічних фігурок [8, page 56]. In this example - "to resolve" verb of "let" it is replaced with narrower contextual value, verb "to carry out", the word "owing" is translated by value "thanking", the word meaning of "ware" - "goods, products" - is translated to narrower - "pottery, figures". In the following example: "The tone of his question had a challenging twang" - «Тон, яким він поставив питання, був зухвало неприємним» [8, p 279]. The word "challenge" has many values at the translation into Ukrainian, but in this context is translated as " зухвалий". "The path through the wood, on the very brow of a slope, ran winding easily for a time" - «Стежина тяглася через ліс, звиваючись, аж до самої вершини схилу» [8, page 279]. In this example verb of "run" - "to run, run" has narrower value "last, coil". Let's pay attention that in this offer it is used not only specification, as well as lexical transformation - "addition". When transfer, at the beginning of the offer we have added the word which was not in the original - "lasted", thereby without having changed sense of the offer of the original. According to domestic V. I rewater Veda. Karaban essence of transformation of addition of the word consists in "introduction to the translation of lexical elements which are absent in the original, for the purpose of the correct transfer of sense of the sentence (original) which is translated, and/or observance of speech and language norms which exist in culture of target language" [5, page 308-309]. In our opinion, in the course of work on the translation, often used transformation is change of word order. It is known that in English, unlike Ukrainian, the word order - fixed, and semantic shades are expressed by other means. For example, "There was silence" - "Has come silence"; "… for a long time neither spoke" - "… both long were silent" [8, page 294]. The word "neither" has negative value and is translated as - neither that nor another, any, anybody (from two). Thus, in this example also such reception as "contextual replacement", namely the antonimichesky translation when it is necessary to replace negative design on affirmative and vice versa is traced. Such transformation as change of grammatical forms, (English passive design), is replaced with active Ukrainian design: "Frances was peculiar for these great, exposed looks, which disconcerted people by their violence and their suddenness" - «Цей довгий, відкритий погляд був властивий Френсіс, він тривожив людей» [8, page 293]; "It of 's got to be killed" - «Його потрібно вбити» [8, page 296]; "I suppose they have to be killed" - «Думаю, що їх треба вбивати» [8, page 297]. As we see, in the given examples, it is not always possible to track application only one, the so-called and often used rewater Veda of "pure" transformation. Translation transformations can be used at the same time, being combined with each other.

Let's note that for adequate translation of texts, have been used by us, both lexical, and grammatical transformations. It is necessary to emphasize that in translation process, translation transformations in pure form are present, but after all they have complex character, we observe their combination. Thus, for the most right or adequate translation, the translator should use different types of translation receptions, and often the whole complex of transformations as they carry out special function: they are productive from the point of view of generation of translation discrepancies.

Conclusion

On the basis of the done research it is possible to draw conclusions that the synonimy decorates the speech not only Ukrainian, but also and English and does it interesting and easy in understanding. Studying of synonimy gives invaluable and really inexhaustible material for penetration into sense of the speech, into sense of language.

Having studied necessary literature on subject of "Synonyms", we managed to allocate some groups of synonyms, for example: full and partial, combinatory and identical and combinatory and nonidentical, identical and various on component structure.

It is necessary to remember that misuse of synonyms conducts to misunderstanding speaking, or in the wrong interpretation of sense of his speech.

The research conducted in this work is caused by aspiration to get into difficult essence of structure of lekskiko-semantic groups, to open the nature of their semantic values as the phenomena of system order, has allowed to make some concrete supervision and conclusions of the semantic problems which are rather put in work, and also to put forward number of questions, concerning sem of ethical perspective in broader and comprehensive manifestation.

One of such questions is directly connected with essence of the semantic importance as linguistic category. In view of that fact that the importance of this or that lexeme in many respects is defined by its system communications in structure of certain lexico-semantic associations we, on the basis of the material considered in work, have come to conclusion that the semantic importance at various lexemes. More this property the lexemes holding the central, key position in the general structure possess.

Thus, the system relations between synonyms, are defined by different factors and are shown at the different levels.

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