Англійська мова

The change may be physical or chemical. It is well known that eggs with thin white do not poach well, as the thin white spreads before coagulation starts. It has been proved that thin whites may be used satisfactorily in cakes, omelets, and souffles. In other words, the whipping qualities of the egg whites has not been appreciably Impaired by the physical change of gelatinous to watery egg whites.

Other changes in the egg occur as the egg ages. The membrane which surrounds the yolk becomes stretched and weakened by increasing amount of water. The yolk no longer appears spherical but flattens out when the egg is broken into a dish; sometimes the stretched membrane around the yolk will be broken on cracking the egg. It is always difficult to separate the yolk and white of an old egg without breaking the yolk.

The change in the location of the water appears to be due to the changing hydrogen-ion concentration of the egg through loss of carbon dioxide.

The pH of the egg white increases from about 7.6 when the egg is freshly laid to 9.7 after keeping, an increase in alkalinity of about 100 per cent.

The hydrogen-ion content of the yolk also decreases but to a less extent. The sianding-up quality of the yolk and the gelatinous quality of the white vary with this increased alkalinity. Freshly laid eggs put in storage in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide in a concentration sufficient to prevent this change in the carbon dioxide content of the egg do not show these changes so markedly. As the yolk and white lose carbon dioxide and become more basic, they are more subject to spoilage through the growth of microorganisms.

The enlargement of the air space is due to the evaporation of moisture from the egg, but as the loss of water depends on the relative humidity of the storage space the size of the air

space is not positive indication of either the age of the egg or its quality.

Composition of eggs. The composition of an egg is roughly 75 per cent water, 12 per cent protein, 12 per cent fat and 1 per cent minerals and vitamins. The fat is all contained in the yolk, where it is present with the protein in highly emulsified form. A large percentage of it is in the form of a phosphorus- containing compound known as lecithin. The yolk protein differs in nature and properties from the protein in the white. It is called ovovitellin and is a phospho-protein similar in composition to the casein of milk. Most of the minerals of the egg are found in the yolk. Of these the iron is the most important, being present in sufficient amount to make eggs of the most valuable, sources of this necessary dietary constituent. When we learn that most of. the vitamins also are located in the yolk we might conclude that the white is of comparatively little food value but this is not quite true.

The whites are a 12 per cent colloidal solution of the proteins, albumin, mucin and globulin, with few, if any, vitamins and no fat. It is thought that mucin, a compound protein, is largely responsible for the gelatinous consistency of the whites. The value of egg whites depends on the fact that they represent the most easily digestible proteins, and from the point of view of the cook they are indispensable.

The colour, the flavour, and the vitamin content of the yolk are all dependent upon the food which the hen eats. Foods containing chlorophyll increase the depth of the yellow colour. The vitamin A and B complex are always present, the former in abundance. Vitamin D may or may not be present, being apparently dependent on the content of the hen's diet and her exposure to sunlight. The food which the hen eats, the condition of the hennery, and the care of the eggs after they are laid all seem to play a part in the flavours which develop during storage.

For most cookery processes the value of the eggs lies in the protein present in colloidal form. The thickening power of eggs is due to the ease with which the protein coagulates. One egg will thicken one cup of milk to jellied consistency, as in custards. The tendency to foam makes them good leavening agents.

One beaten egg will leaven as well as one-half tea-spoon of baking powder, while if the white alone is used, the leavening power may be twice as great. The actual leavening and thickening accomplished by the use of eggs depend upon 1 he technique of mixing and baking. The emulsifying property of eggs is well illustrated in mayonnaise and cakes. A cake made without eggs is never of so fine a texture, and although, as we know, we can make mayonnaise without eggs, the oil is much more easily emulsified with their use.

Coagulation of egg protein. Many factors, including the rate of heating and the presence of such foods as sugar, and acid, influence the temperature of coagulation of egg, but in every case the temperature of coagulation is well bellow 90 ^CC. If the egg is heated slowly it begins to thicken at about 65 °C and sets to a jelly at a temperature around 70 to 75 ^C'C. If heated longer, the coagulated protein, which now holds within its mashwork the solution of other constituents, continues to coagulate and to shrink until it no longer can hold all of the solution. The jelly first formed begins to whey or to exude liquid. If the egg is heated rapidly, however, it is quite possible that the jelly stage will not be reached until a higher temperature but will then be so quickly formed that it will immediately shrink. In the preparation of custards, sauces, and other dishes thickened with egg, the directions call for a low cooking temperature because its ability to hold liquid in jelly form.

In the preparation of stirred egg dishes, overcooked egg gives the dish a curdled appearance. The presence of other foods influences the rate of coagulation and the firmness of the resultant jelly. Acids or acid foods as tomato, brown sugar, or fruits decrease the temperature of coagulation and make the custard firmer. The more milk in proportion to egg has the opposite effect, and, while the less firm custards are more palatable, they are more difficult to make, because if these tender jellies are cooked too long or to rapidly they appear to shrink or curdle more rapidly than the firmer ones. The addition of sugar retards the coagulation of egg that is, it raises the temperature of coagulation. This is great help as it is very difficult to heat egg dishes slowly enough in a home to avoid overheating.

When any dish is cooked in the oven, the outer part cooks more rapidly than the centre. If an egg dish, such as a custard, is baked at a high temperature, the outer portions reach the final stage of coagulation before the centre has reached a temperature high enough for this first stage. An egg poached or cooked in the shell in hot water behaves similary. If put into boiling water, the outer portions become hard and tough before the centre has set, but if held at the temperature of coagulation, the outer portions will still be tender when the centre is sufficiently done. Scrambled eggs become harder as they are cooked. If much liquid is added before heating, they will become watery after long cooking. Even a baked or stirred custard which contains normal amounts of sugar will become watery or curdled unless extreme care is taken to keep a low cooking temperature.

Leavening with eggs. The leavening power of eggs depends on the amount of air which has been incorporated during the beating, as well as the amount of air which is allowed to remain in the batter or dough during the mixing and baking. Because of the colloidal nature of the protein, large amounts of air may be incorporated into egg whites. During the beating, the air bubbles, which arc at first large but finally become small, are coated with a coagulated protein film. As the air bubbles become smaller the foam becomes whiter and finally appears to be dry. Recent experiments have shown that egg whites beaten until dry have not only less volume but are also less stable. It is for this reason that many recipes may call for eggs beaten stiff but not dry. Thin egg whites will whip to a larger volume but the foam is less stable than that from gelatinous whites. Acids arid acid salts increase the stability of foams also, and one of the best acid salts is cream of tartar. A cake leavened with egg whites beaten to a stable foam will be lighter in texture. If the foam is unstable, a cake of smaller volume will result. It is partly for this reason and partly because the presence of cream of tartar makes a whiter cake that al! angel- food cakei recipes call for the addition of cream of tartar.

Egg yolks will also incorporate air, but the amount appears to be considerably less and the foam very much finer.

The effect of the yolk on the leavening power of the white is a matter of speculation. The fat of the yolk is unquestionably the chief factor, although at the present it is thought that other ingredients in the egg yolk also decrease foam stability. Since it is well known that the fat can be emulsified in protein and protein in fat, it is possible that the foaming power of the protein is cut down by the fat emulsified with it. When eggs are used as a leavening agenf they should be well beaten. The blending of the other ingredients into either beaten yolk or whole egg without loss of the incorporated air offers little difficulty, as in both cases the air is held in a very fine state of division and surrounded with quantities of blending material. With whites the case is quite different. The blending of these is best done under a blanket, as it were, of the other ingredients. In making a soufflй and angelfood cake, or any other product which is leavened with egg whites only, the quality of the products depends largely upon the blending of the ingredients. In a soufflй, a white-sauce mixture is baked in a slow oven. In mixing the beaten whites with the sauce, an effort should be made to cover the beaten whites with the sauce, before cutting through them, otherwise much of the incorporated air will escape. Air will also escape through too long or too much mixing on the other hand, unless the whites are completely blended, much of the leavening action will be lost, as the proteins of the egg whites are in themselves not sufficiently strong or elastic to hold in the air as it expands in the oven. In products containing many eggs, such as angelfood cake or sponge cake, the region of unblended egg white appears in the baked cake, as a large whole which is produced by the exploded bubbles.

Baking of egg-leavened products. Care must be exercised in the baking also. A hot oven will set the protein along the sides, top and bottom, before the centre is heated. As the incorporated air expands in this soft centre, the top surface will crack to allow escape of the gas held under pressure. Before the baked product is done throughout, the outer portions will shrink and become tough. An oven which is too low, on the other hand, will cause great expansion of gas throughout, and the resulting product will be large in volume but generally dry, through loss of considerable moisture due to the longer baking period- It is needless to say that any product leavened mostly with eggs should be baked as soon after mixing as possible. Unless completely baked, that is, unless at least the first stage of coagulation of protein is reached, the product will fall when taken from the oven, as the gas contracts on cooking.

Meringties are beaten egg whites containing varying amount of sugar. These may be baked in the oven to slightly brown.

Those meringues containing a large amount of sugar (3 or 4 tb sp. per egg white) brown readily in the oven, but are apt to form a hard crust. Beaten egg whites containing no sugar cannot be baked without considerable protein shrinkage, coalescence of gas bubbles, and loss of incorporated air. Meringues containing a moderate amount of sugar are more easily baked and represent the more typical meringue of today. The formation of small drops of sugar syrup on the top of meringues which have been kept a short while is due to the evaporation of water from the pudding or pie through the meringue forming a concentrated sugar syrup at the surface.

Active Vocabulary

indispensable необхідний

abundant рясний, багатий

freshly laid egg, new-laid свіжознесене яйце

extraneous matter

liquefaction зрідження, розрідження

whipping qualities якість збитих білків

standing-up quality збережена якість

humidity вогкість, вологість, волога

valuable source цінне джерело

food value харчова цінність

thickening power здатність згущувати(ся)

custard заварний крем

baking powder пекарний порошок

to shrink давати усадку, усушку

egg poached варене яйце

scrambled eggs яєчня

leavening power здатність розпушування

cream of tartar винний камінь

angel food cake рід бісквіту

leavening agent розпушувач

otherwise інакше, або ж

sponge cake бісквіт, бісквітний торт, тістечко

meringue меренга (тістечко зі збитих білків з цукром)

shrinkage усадка, усушка

coalescence з'єднання, злипання

poach варити яйця без шкарлупи в окропі

batter збите тісто

dough тісто, густа масса

Task1. Fill in the gaps using the words in the box

Shrinkage, odour and flavour, well beaten, dipped, quality of eggs, processing, cookery processes, leavening agents.

1. There are some factors which affect the ________ and they can be discovered only after the egg is broken.

2. For the consumer, the _________ of the egg are very important.

3. Eggs are preserved on the commercial scale by freezing, by dryings and by ________.

4. Processed eggs are ________ in a suitable oil which fills the pores of the shell and then they are placed in storage.

5. The size of eggs varies greatly but this variation is neglected in making recipes for ________ when small amounts are used.

6. The tendency of eggs to foam makes them good _______ .

7. When eggs are used as a leavening agent, they should be ________.

8. Beaten egg whites containing no sugar cannot be baked without considerable protein ________ and loss of incorporated air.

Task2. Choose the correct form in bold

1.Eggs are/is easily prepared/prepare.

2.The shell of freshly laid egg is/are completely fill/filled.

3.The exact cause of this liquefaction of gelatinous egg white is/are not know/known.

4.It has/have been prove/proved that thin whites may be used satisfactorily in cakes, omelets and soufflйs.

5.Most of the minerals of the egg is/are find/found in the yolk.

6.Most of the vitamins also are/is locate/located in yolk.

7.When any dish are/is cook/cooked in the oven, the outer part cooks more rapidly than the centre..

8.In a soufflй, a white-sauce mixture are/is baked/bake in a slow oven.

Task 3. Transcribe and pronounce correctly the following words

Indispensable, nutritious, yolk, liquefaction, humidity, coagulation, custard, dough, mixture, shrink.

Task 4. Match the word or words with the definition

1. shrinkage a. pudding or sweet sauce of eggs and milk

2. coalescence b. thick mixture of flour and liquid forbaking

3. custard c. light sponge cake

4. dough d. substance causing dough to ferment and rise

5. angel cake e. white part round the yolk of an egg

6. leaven f. yellow inner part of an egg

7. egg-white g. drying out

8. yolk h. coming together and forming a whole

Task 5. Translate into English

1. Яйця є необхідним компонентом в раціоні харчування людини.

2. Вони містять вітаміни, мінерали, жири та білок.

3. Білок яйця широко використовується для приготування тістечок, омлетів, суфле.

4. Яйця, які зберігалися в сприятливих умовах впродовж кількох місяців, не втрачають своєї харчової цінності.

5. Колір, смак і склад вітамінів у жовтку залежить від корму, який давали курям.

6. Заварні креми варто готувати при низькій температурі, інакше вони будуть водянистими.

7. Для того, щоб тісто при випіканні добре «піднялось», яйця необхідно добре збити.

8. Для отримання тістечок певного розміру, до рецепту яких входять білки, необхідно збити білки в стійку піну.

9. Коагуляція яєць залежить від багатьох факторів: ступеня підігріву, наявності цукру, кислоти та ін.

10. Кислота зменшує температуру коагуляції.

Task 6. Answer the questions:

1. What do eggs contain?

2. What does a shiny smooth egg shell indicate?

3. What changes can you observe in eggs?

4. What is the composition of an egg?

5. What are the colour, the flavour and vitamin content of the yolk dependent upon?

6. What does the leavening power of eggs depend on?

7. What factors influence the temperature of coagulation of egg?

8. Why eggs should be well beaten when they are used as a leavening agent?

9. What care must be exercised in the baking of egg-leavened products?

10. Why are eggs indispensable in the average diet?

Task 7. Read the text and discuss it

EASTER EGGS GAMES

The kids are looking forward to Sunday when they wake up and see that the Easter Bunny left for them baskets of candy and hidden Easter eggs. Children all over the house and garden look for eggs. Even is held a special event - search of eggs. A child who collects the most gets a prize. These festivals are held in parks and restaurants, but you can arrange a hunt for eggs and home to the delight of the kids, think of some rhyming clues, little poems, which will help to find them.

Easter egg rolling is carried out in the open air, on a slope covered with grass. The goal is not to break the egg. Egg, rolling from the mountain, symbolizes the stone rolled away from Holy Sepulchre.

Task 8. Do you know any Ukrainian equivalents of the following English idioms. Make up sentences with them?

1. home bird

2. walls have ears

3. home sweet home

4. be in apple-pie order

5. an early bird

6. regular as clockwork

JUST FOR FUN

Boy: I want a bundle of hay.

Farmer: For your father?

Boy: No, for the horse. Father doesn't eat hay.

UNIT 15. BATTERS AND DOUGHS

We must begin our study with the properties of the classes of foods and then proceed to the reactions of those foods with each other, applying the known theories as we go. Just as the chemist, after his preliminary study of elements, compounds, and their properties, is able to devise new methods of preparing well-known chemicals, to synthesize new substances, and to develop new theories, so it is possible for the students of food preparation to devise better methods preparing standard dishes, to originate new combinations, and to explain familiar facts by new theories.

Inasmuch as even the simplest food is complex in nature, the properties of the component substances cannot be so well defined, as in chemical reactions, but a few general statements may be made regarding some of them.

Flour and gluten. The main cooking value of flour lies in the fact that it holds all ingredients together. The starch in flour is capable of absorbing large quantities of water when heated. The proteins, gliadin and glutenin, unite physically to form gluten, an elastic mass of varying degrees of toughness. Like starch, gluten absorbs a large quantity of water and assists in giving form to a cooked product as it coagulates, when heated.

As the amounts of starch and gluten vary in different kinds and brands of flour, so the water-absorbing power of flours varies. A cup of flour mixed with one-third of a cup of milk may give a soft dough with one flour and a stiff dough with another. For this reason, many recipes call for "flour to make a stiff dough" rather than state the exact ratio of flour to liquid. The so-called "kitchen tested flours" of the same brand should have the same absorption power, so that once the proper ratio of flour to liquid is determined with one of these flours, recipes with exact amounts of flour and liquid can be followed with assurance of success.

The amount of water which a flour can absorb is particularly important in stiff doughs, as baking-powder biscuits, rolled cookies, rolls, pastry and bread, but in all batters and doughs the amount and development of gluten are extremely important because the lightness, toughness, and palatability depend upon it. We think of gluten as strands of sticky elastic protein made by mixing the flour with water. The longer the flour fs mixed with the water the thicker or tougher the strands become. Overmixed flour makes overdeveloped gluten, and, as it is more difficult for the bearing gas to stretch the strong elastic strands, one of main results of overdeveloped gluten in heavier, compact, baked product. Often sufficient pressure is exerted by steam in a baked product to bore its way through the overdeveloped gluten, but this has little leavening effect. Steam forcing its way through the softer centre of the baked product makes tunnels. Another effect of the overdevelopment of gluten is that of toughening due mainly to the fact that the fat which ordinarily surrounds and separates the particles of a cake or cookie is absorbed by the thick strands of gluten.

While the development of gluten can be controlled by the amount of mixing, it is interesting to know other factors which are also influential, it is natural that the ratio of water to flour would be significant as the strands of gluten are made thicker and thicker by rubbing the sticky strands together. Consequently when the amount of water is great, as in such thin batters as popo- vers, it is difficult to overdevelop gluten. In most batters and doughs, the ratio of water to flour is almost ideal for gluten development, consequently, care has to be exercised, both to make enough gluten to give structure and elasticity to the baked product as well as to avoid its overdevelopment. The acidity or basicity of the dough affects the character of the gluten. Both excess acid and hydroxide soften gluten, making it appear more sticky, as a cake with too much acid or hydroxide has less volume and is more compact, chewy and moist. The residues of baking powders vary as to acidity and must be taken into consideration.

Sugar. It goes without saying that sugar increases the sweetness of a dish. Curious as it may seen, the addition of a small amount of sugar counteracts the effect of salt. Many a cook has escaped harsh criticism by adding "a dash of sugar" to a soup or gravy which has been made too salty. Sugar has another effect on flavour which seems less strange only because it is more familiar, it offsets an acid flavour, and, when, added to an underripe or excessively acid fruit or vegetable, brings out the natural flavour which was formerly masked by the acid. There are no explanations for the effect of sugar on flavour. In fact, the subject of flavour in general has long been an unsolved problem in the hands of chemists, physiologists, and psychologists.

In a cooked dish, the presence of sugar increases the tendency to brown (caramel ization) and to become crisp or “chewy”

The addition of a large amount of sugar to a cake batter gives a product which will be well browned and crisp; in fact, it might well pass under the disguise of cookie if baked in suitable shapes.

As the development of gluten is hindered by the presence of sugar, the texture of flour mixtures is affected by varying the amounts of sugar. Muffins which are tough and compact from the overdevelopment of gluten would have been light and tender had the amount of sugar in the recipe been increased. The sugar prevents the overdevelopment of gluten, and, consequently, the gluten gives to the gentle pressure of expanding gas (C0₂ from baking powder or baking soda), making light fine-grained muffins without steam tunnels. The steam collects in the holes made by the carbon dioxide.

If a large amount of sugar is added to a batter or dough, the development of gluten may be hindered to the point, that the baked product has insufficient structural material. A cake which falls during the baking is often due to the use of too much sugar which is not compensated by extra mixing. Sugar will hinder the gelatinization of starch also.

Eggs. Thanks to eggs' colloidal nature they can be used as an emulsifying agent, a leavening agent, and a binding material. Because of the difference in composition of whites and yolks, the effect of a product will also vary. The white binds and leavens well. The yolk binds and leavens less well, but increases the tenderness and fineness of texture of the product to which it is added. The whole egg will naturally show the characteristics of both white and yolk.

When many eggs are used, a large volume is obtained but the greater amount of coagulated protein toughens and dries the product. Like sugar, eggs prevent the normal development of gluten but the results are less disastrous as the coagulated egg protein helps to keep the cake from falling.

Fat. The most important function of fat in food preparation is that of increasing the tenderness of a product to which it is added. This effect is brought about by the separation of the particles of a food by enveloping fat. In the preparation of any tender food-pastry, cake, or biscuits the efficiency of the fat is increased when care is taken that the fat surrounds, but is not absorbed by, the other substances present in the food. Since developed gluten absorbs fat, the greatest care is necessary in preparation of tender foods in which gluten is present.

Increasing amounts of fat in a leavened batter cause increasing difficulty in the baking of that batter, as the fat melts and, in so doing, softens the product. This allows the escape of a great deal of gas before the batter has set, which may cause the product to fall. In most recipes the amount of fat is taken together with the amount of milk, water or other fluid constituent as making up the total quantity of liquid in determining the proper ratio of flour or other binding material. For example, if the amount of fat is decreased in a recipe, the amount of milk or water is usually increased.

A cake batter takes less liquid than a muffin batter, because the former has much more fat. Fat affects flavour also. Most fats contribute a flavour of their own and dissolve many of the flavour -- some organic substances which are insoluble in water. It is for this reason that the onions fried in fat have a different flavour from those cooked in water.

Because of the great solubility of most substances of delicate but pronounced flavour in fat, this is used to blend the flavours of stews, casseroles.

Milk. In spite of the fact that milk is 88 per cent water its effect on a cooked product is different from that of water. Because of its emulsified fat and its colloidal protein, milk helps to make a finer colloid of any batter in which it is present. For example, a cake made with water has a coarser texture, dries out more quickly, and has a slightly different flavour from one made with milk.

A fruit sherbet made with milk in place of water has finer crystals, more body, and richer flavour.

Active Vocabulary

batter без дріжджове, збите тісто

dough тісто, густа маса, паста

flour борошно

inasmuch as тому що; через те, що

gluten клейковина

pastry кондитерські вироби

cooking value якість приготування їжі

brands of flour ґатунок, якість борошна

kitchen tested flours борошно, перевірене в приготуванні в домашніх умовах

lightness легкість

toughness в'язкість

strand пучок, смужка

leavening effect ефект розпушування (тіста)

popovers вироби з борошна, яєць, молока по типу вафельних виробів

basicity основність

a dash of sugar дрібка цукру

chewy танучий

residue залишок, осад

gravy підлива, соус

muffin гаряча здоба, оладки

crisp хрусткий

enveloping fat огортаючий жир

binding material зв'язуючи матеріал

casserole запіканка

Task1. Fill in the gaps using the words in the box

Melts and softens, Gluten, finer colloid, coarser texture, consideration, colloidal nature, basicity, cooking value

1. The main _________ of flour lies in the fact that it holds all ingredients together.

2. _________ absorbs a large quantity of water and assists in giving from to a cooked product as it coagulates when heated.

3. The acidity or __________ of the dough affects the character of the gluten.

4. Eggs can be used as an emulsifying agent, a leavening agent, and binding material, thanks to their _________.

5. We must take into __________ that if the amount of the fat is decreased in a recipe, the amount of milk water is usually increased.

6. A cake made with water has a __________ , dries out more quickly.

7. Milk helps to make a _________ of any batter in which it is present.

8. Increasing amounts of fat in a leavened batter cause increasing difficulty in the baking of that batter, as the fat __________ the product.

Task2. Choose the correct form in bold

1.We must begin/must to begin our study with the properties of the classes of food and then proceed to the reactions of those foods with each other.

2.The main cooked value/cooking value of flour lies in the fact that it holds all ingredients together.

3. It goes without saying that sugar increases the sweet/sweetness of a dish.

4. A cake which falls during the baking is often due to the use of too little/much sugar which is not compensated by extra mixing.

5. When many eggs are/is used, a large volume is obtained but the greater amount of coagulated protein toughens and dries the product.

6.This effect is/are brought about by the separation of particles of food by enveloping fat.

7.If the amount of fat is/are decreased in a recipe, the amount of milk or water are/is usually increased.

8.Eggs can be use/used as emulsifying agent, a leavening agent, and binding material, thanks to their colloidal nature.

Task 3. Transcribe and pronounce correctly the following words

batter, dough, toughness, flour, palatability, casserole, residue, porosity, sponginess, chewy,

Task 4. Match the word or words with the definition

1. spongy a. evaporating rapidly

2. porous b. sauce for food

3. volatile c. drink of fermented apple juice

4. casserole d. meal or powder from ground wheat

5. gravy e. food cooked in the oven

6. cider f. mingled sensation of smell and taste

7. flour g. porous, elastic, absorbent

8. flavour h. full of pores; letting through air, water etc.

Task 5. Translate into English

1. Виготовлений з борошна крохмаль, що підігрівається, здатен абсорбувати велику кількість води.

2. В'язкість тіста залежить від кількості води в ньому.

3. На смак та структуру печеного продукту впливає склад білку та жовтку.

4. На водопоглинаючу здатність борошна впливає кількість крохмалю і глютену в борошні різного ґатунку.

5. Велика кількість яєць у тісті сприяє тому, що випечений продукт швидко черствіє.

6. При приготуванні пісочного тіста, рідини потрібно менше, ніж при приготуванні дріжджового, так як у пісочному тісті більше жиру.

7. Жир надає смак тісту і розчиняє органічні речовини, нерозчинні у воді.

8. Печиво, виготовлене із тіста на воді швидко черствіє, його смак відрізняється від смаку печива, випеченого із тіста на молоці.

Task 6. Answer the questions:

1. What is the main cooking value of flour?

2. What do lightness, toughness and palatability depend upon?

3. What makes overdeveloped gluten?

4. What affects the character of the gluten?

5. How does sugar affect the flavour?

6. What hinders the development of gluten?

7. How do eggs affect batters and doughs?

8. What is the most important function of fat in food preparation?

Task 7. Read the text without a dictionary and discuss it

HOW TO COOK UKRAINIAN VARENYKY

Ingredients for Ukrainian Varenyky with potatoes:

for making dough: for making forcemeat:

325 g wheaten flour 560 g potato

150 g water 100 g onion

1/2 egg 40 g oil

sour cream to taste ground black pepper to taste

salt to taste salt to taste

Directions:

Unleavened dough. Heat up a half-portion of water to 95-98 °C. Add the water in sifted flour and mix very well. Beat up eggs with salt and remaining water at room temperature. Mix well until the mixture has a homogeneous and thick texture and put in a warm place for 30 minutes.

Stuffing. Peel and boil potatoes, dry it a little and rub hot through a sieve, season with onion, fried in oil, pepper and salt (remain some portion of braised onion for seasoning cooked varenyky.

Roll out the dough into a 1.5 mm thick layer. Place prepared stuffing, shaped into balls, through a whole width of rolled out dough layer, stepping back 3-4 cm from its ends. Cover the stuffing with dough layer, pressing it around each ball, and cut varenyky out with a special from. Use again the remaining dough for rolling out.

Immerse each varenik separately into boiling salted water, separating it carefully from bottom of a saucepan with skimmer, and cook for 6-8 minutes at moderate boiling.

Take varenyky with skimmer out of a saucepan, let the water pour down, season varenyky with onion, braised in oil, and pour cream over it.

Task 8. Give Ukrainian equivalents to the following English idioms. Make up situations to illustrate some of them

1. eat, drink and be merry

2. while away the time

3. not do a stroke of work

4. make one's mouth water

5. melt in one's mouth

6. tastes differ

JUST FOR FUN

Man: Little boy, why how is it you are so short for your age?

Boy: I am so busy. I have no time to grow.

UNIT 16. FOOD PRESERVATION

Food spoilage is due to the growth of microorganisms in the food. In the course of their development these produce, in some cases, harmless products, such as iectic acid in sour milk or carbon dioxide and alcohol in bread dough made with yeast; in others harmless but undersirable products, such as the flavour which mold imparts to bread; while, in still other cases, harmful toxins are produced. Food preservation has both hygienic and economic aspects. From the point of view hygiene, food is preserved in order to prevent the formation of products which are harmful to the body. Many essential but perishable foods are preserved for the purpose of prolonging the period of availability. Oranges or tomatoes supply vitamin C from January to January, Green vegetables as well as the more stable root vegetables can be fresh or in cans at any time. Thanks to improved methods of food preservation, it is now possible for everyone at all times to have clean, wholesome food -- a well-balanced diet.

Microorganisms. For those who have studied bacteriology, the ravages of food by microorganisms make an old story. In all living tissues microorganisms are found which assist either in the growth of the plant or animal or in their decay. In addition the air, water, and all other substances with which food comes in contact contain microorganisms foreign to the natural food but capable of reacting the solutions present in it.

Thus any food is subject to either decay or spoilage by the growth of microorganisms. Our study of microorganisms will confine itself to a description of the different classes and the conditions which are favourable or unfavourable to their growth.

There are three classes -- molds, yeast, and bacteria. All are characterized by their extremely minute size and their wide distribution. Microorganisms multiply more rapidly at moderate temperatures -- for the most part about 40 °C and their growth is checked at very low temperatures.

Microorganisms may multiply in two ways. In one, a microorganism splits off a part of itself which resembles the original organism in appearance and method of reproduction. In the other, a rounded mass called a spore is developed, which is unlike the parent form but will develop into a similar organism, provided the conditions for growth are favourable. A spore differs from the microorganism from which it comes in being more resistant to conditions unfavourable to growth. Whereas most microorganisms are destroyed by boiling water, many types of spores which have been held at high temperatures will later grow and multiply, when the conditions of their environment become more favourable for growth. For this reason spore-bearing organisms are more difficult to destroy than those which multiply by simple cell division.

Molds. The conditions for the growth of mold are less rigid than for any other class of microorganisms. For this reason we may find well-established settlements of molds on almost any substances: they are found on acid foods, such as lemons, oranges or tomatoes; on neutral foods, such as bread and meats; on sweets such as jellies and jams; and on salty food such as bacon or ham.

Most molds are spore bearing. Spores are clearly visible as the coloured specks which fringe the thread-like mold growth. The colour will vary with the kind of mold. The more common mold has bluish-green spores, but others with black or red spores are seen fairly often. Molds multiply most rapidly at temperatures varying from 20 to 35 °C, and in damp, dark places in which there is little circulation of air. They will multiply on any substance which contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, whether acid, neutral, or slightly alkaline. Molds may be destroyed or their growth checked by unfavourable conditions.

Low temperatures retard the growth of mold, but temperatures below that of an ordinary ice chest (10 to 15 °C) are necessary. Molds must have some moisture. A dry food will not mold unless it is kept in a damp place. Molds will form in darkness or light, but many species cease to grow if exposed to bright sunlight. Circulating air is destructive to mold growth.

Yeasts. Yeasts, unlike molds, will grow only on foods containing sugars. The reaction called fermentation changes the

sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide with minute quantities of other products. Although yeasts will grow only in the presence of sugar, they may be found widely distributed.

The mixture of various kinds of yeasts present everywhere in the air is called wild yeast. Yeasts multiply either by spores or by cell division. Among the essentials for the growth of yeasts are sugar, oxygen, water and certain inorganic sails such as those of calcium, nitrogen, and sulphur. They are easily destroyed by high temperatures (100 °C). The alcohol which they produce in their life processes slows down and, finally, completely checks further growth. For this reason beverages of high alcoholic content can be obtained only by distillation.

In strong sugar solution yeasts multiply slowly.

All fruit juices are subject to fermentation, unless the yeasts which they naturally contain are destroyed, which may easily be done by bringing the juices to boiling temperatures and sealing in clean containers while hot.

Apple juice which ordinarily becomes "hard" in a few days may be kept for months or years this method.

Bacteria. Although there are many properties which are characteristic of all bacteria, the differences in the behaviour of the different kinds of bacteria are greater than those of the different kinds of yeasts and molds.

Bacteria are widely distributed. Like yeasts and molds, ¹ they may be found anywhere -- in the air, water, soil, and in all foods. In a less acid medium they multiply most rapidly, and, therefore, it is the less acid foods which are most subject to bacterial decomposition. The products of decomposition vary with the kind of food and the kind of bacteria. While in most cases we wish to decrease the bacteria content, certain foods are made desirable by products of bacteria growth. Sauerkraut owes its flavour and physiological effects to the lactic acid which is produced by the microorganisms in the course of its preparation. The flavours of cheeses, butter, and butter substitutes are also products of bacterial activity. On the other hand, the spoilage of canned foods, meats, milks and vegetables is also due to the products of bacterial growth.

Bacteria require moisture for growth. Exposure to sunlight for sufficient length of time destroys bacteria but not their spores. The temperature for optimum growth will vary (20 to 55 °C) with the kind of bacteria. Bacteria are more difficult to destroy than the other microorganisms.

The methods of food preservation may give temporary preservation by checking the growth of microorganisms or permanent preservation by destroying them.

Refrigeration or cold storage is the most common method of temporarily preserving food. Indeed, it is one of the most satisfactory of all methods of food preservation, as it does not markedly alter either the taste, appearance, or nutritive value of the food. Refrigeration is practised in the home and commercially. It is most successful with the foods which are least subject to bacterial decomposition, but other foods may be preserved a long time if freezing temperatures are used. Fish and animal products can be kept only by refrigeration at very low temperature. Considerable success is now being experienced in the preserving of fish and meat and of many fruits and vegetables by freezing. New methods of freezing and better storage facilities for frozen products have improved the flavour and texture of the food so treated.

The electric refrigerators are somewhat colder and contain drier air and are, therefore, more successful for the preservation of foods which are subject to bacterial growth.

Other methods of food preservation are effective over a long period of time. By these methods either the microorganisms are destroyed, or the conditions are made unsuitable for their g: o vth. There is a variety of methods for this more permanent type of food preservation.

Drying. Drying has been a means of food preservation for centuries and is still used for many foods. It promotes preservation by removing the water essential for the growth of all microorganisms. We find in the market dried fruits, milks, meats, and vegetables, but the varieties of each are few.

The method of drying varies greatly with the food. Foods containing sugar require less drying than others. Within the last few years, intensive efforts have been made to produce dried products which are not only clean but also will resemble fresh foods in appearance and nutritive value.

Dried foods occupy less storage space and may be stored without consideration of temperature. Most dried foods require soaking before cooking in order to restore the water lost by drying. The dried foods most commonly used are prunes, raisins, currants, apples, apricots, peaches, figs, dates, beans, fish, beef, and mushrooms.

Chemical preservation. Many foods are preserved by the use of added substances, which destroy or check the growth of microorganisms. Although many chemicals are known which could be used to help in the preservation of foods, few are allowed by government authorities.

Among the legal chemicals are benzoic acid and sodium ben- zoate. Sulphur dioxide (S0₂) and sodium bisuiphate (NaHSO_s) are used in dried fruits such as apples, because the darkening of the fruit is lessened by their presence. These sulphur compounds have also a preserving action.

Smoke contains phenols which help in the preservation of smoked products. The preserving action of cloves and cinnamon depends upon their eugenol or cinnamic aldehyde content.

Potassium nitrite and potassium nitrate, used in the curing ("corning"¹*) of pork and beef, improve the taste and redden the colour. They have no preservative effect.

Salted products are usually partly dried as well as salted. Common examples are found in chipped beef and salt codfish. Less drying is necessary when salt is used, as the concentrated salt solution preserves by osmosis.

Canning. Canning is the most common form of food preservation. Preservation is insured by the use of sufficient heat to destroy all microorganisms which might develop in the canned product during storage. The temperature in the canning of food depends upon several factors, the hydrogen-ion concentration of the food, the number of microorganisms present in the uncooked food and the rate at which heat can penetrate the food to be canned.

It has already been stated that bacteria and their spores become less resistant to heat as the hydrogen-ion concentration of the media increases. Consequently, foods of high hydrogen-ion concentration may be preserved either by a low temperature for a long time or by a short heating period at a high temperature. In canning, boiling temperature 100 °C is considered low, 115 to 119 °C high.

It may be noted that foods of high' acid concentration require either less time, or lower temperature, or both, than the less acid foods.

The time allowed for processing is governed not only by the hydrogen-ion concentration but also by the rate at which the heat penetrates into the food. It is well known that metals are better heat conductors than asbestos.

Experiments have shown that the rate of heat penetration is governed by a number of factors, some of which are more predictable than others. It goes without saying that the food in the centre of a glass jar will take longer to reach sterilization temperature than that in a tin, can, that large-size containers require a longer time than small, that food which is processed at 115 °C reaches 100 °C sooner than that processed at 100 °C„ and that a jar of cold food requires a longer period than one of preheated food

Formerly it was thought that this treatment "set the colour and flavour" of the food, but now it is known that blanching has no such exalted position in the canning ritual but serves merely to reduce the bulk (spinach), or to help remove the skins (tomatoes, peaches, beets), or to set vegetable protein solution (corn).

The cook-in-ihe-kettle method consists in cooking the food in an open kettle until all has reached sterilization point, or longer if desired. The food is then packed and sealed in clean sterile jars. From a bacteriological point of view it is obvious that this method of canning is applicable only to foods which provide a poor medium for the growth of microorganisms, such as acid fruits or fruits in sugar syrup. It has certain advantages over the other method in that it requires less apparatus and usually less time.

The cook-in-the-can method describes itself. Food to be canned is washed, blanched if necessary, cut into suitable pieces, and placed in either tin cans or glass jars. Hot water, usually containing either salt or sugar, or both, is added to fill completely the can or jar, which is placed in a suitable cooker to destroy the microorganisms present. Tin-canned food is sealed before processing. All food which is commercially canned in tin cans is heated previous to sealing.

Storage of Canned Food. While every effort is made to destroy the microorganisms of the food during the processing, it should be remembered that if any spores resist the temperature of the cooker, then development will be hindered by storing the canned food at low temperatures. Low temperatures are also unfavourable to the reactions which take place between the food and the tin or iron. It has been shown that the natural colour of fruits is preserved much better by storing fruits in a warehouse at 0 °C, than at higher temperatures, no discolouration being observable after two and a half years of storage. It is recommended, therefore, that canned food which is not to be used within a very short time should be stored at a temperatures as near ft °C as possible.

Canned food is graded. Many labels on canned foods do show a grade for the product. Definitions of these grades are given as follows: the fancy grades use uniformly perfect fruit in the best state of ripeness and of the largest size. The fruit is packed in a thick syrup. Cans of choice grade fruit contain nearly perfect fruit of average size in a medium syrup. Standard grade uses smaller, less uniform fruit in a thinner syrup.

In addition to these, there are two lower grades which are used largely for cooking.

Active Vocabulary

spoilage псування

sour milk кисле молоко

mold цвіль, плісенний грибок

bread dough хлібне тісто

perishable foods їжа, що псується

yeast дріжджі, закваска

decay гниття, розпад

decomposition розкладання; гниття

date термін

sauerkraut кисла капуста

soak замочувати; усмоктувати; занурюватися

cure заготовляти, консервувати

living tissues живі тканини

minute size найдрібніший розмір

ice chest льодовик, холодильник

fermentation бродіння, ферментація

wild yeasts дикі дріжджі

canned foods консервовані продукти

nutritive value харчова цінність

clove гвоздика (прянощі)

cinnamon кориця

eugenol хім. сполука евгенол

“corning” засолювати, консервувати сіллю (м'ясо, рибу)

cook-in-the-can method метод порційного консервування (по банках)

cook-in-the-kettle method метод консервування в загальному котлі з

подальшою розфасовкою

fancy grade вищий ґатунок (екстра)

choice grade кращий ґатунок (відбірний)

Task1. Fill in the gaps using the words in the box

harmful, microorganisms, heat, hygienic, favorable, storage facilities, preserving, freezing, dried, appearance

1. Food preservation has both _________ and economic aspects.

2. From the point of view of hygiene food is preserved in order to prevent the formation of products which are __________ to the body.