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Politeness strategies in verbal communication of representatives of British and American cultures

Костанай 2014

Contents

• Introduction
• 1. Politeness as a subject of scientific research
• 1.1 The notion of politeness
• 1.2 Politeness strategies
• 1.3 Choice of strategy
• 1.4 Payoffs of the strategies
• 1.5 Sociological factors
• Summary and conclusions
• 2. Culture-specific aspect of politeness strategy implementation
• 2.1 Analysis of the extracts from “Rose Madder” by Stephen King
• 2.2 The analysis of the extracts from “Pig Island” by Moe Hyder
• 2.3 The analysis of the extracts from “Hanging Hill” by Moe Hyder
• 2.4 The analysis of the extracts from “Duma Key” by Stephen King
• 2.5 The analysis of the extracts from “Firestarter” by Stephen King
• 2.6 The analysis of the extracts from “Christine” by Stephen King
• 2.7 Results of empirical analysis and their interpretation
• Summary and conclusions
• Conclusion
• References
• Introduction

With the beginning of the development of society, language and the verbal type of communication within it, there have always been the line distinguishing between what is proper, generally accepted and what is considered to be unwelcome and even unacceptable in terms of spoken interaction. No doubt those moral guidelines, acquired by the representatives of different cultures among their peculiar social circle generation by generation, being dynamically transformed with the course of time, differ markedly from each other in the variety of cultures that our world is inhabited with. But no matter how strong the differences are, one fact is unquestionable - in every single culture there has always been a set of unwritten rules defining the guidelines for verbal communication within a certain culture, even subdivided into specific instructions for the sub-groups within given culture. There have always been moral laws defining what is commonly received, polite, and generally reproached, impolite, rude, or even vulgar.

This work is devoted to the analysis of the typical conversational patterns, common and alternative phrases and structures, the use of which is the indication of a conversation kept within the commonly received moral standards.

Based on the relevance the goal of the research was determined, i.e. to study and compare the strategies of linguistic politeness used by the representatives of British and American linguistic cultures (as exemplified by works of Modern British and American authors).

In accordance with the purpose of the work the following objectives were defined that are directed to the full revealing of the research topic and the achievement of the goal:

1) to give an analysis of the theoretical status of the problem;

2) to reveal the concept of “politeness”, “politeness strategy”;

3) обосновать лингвокультурную специфику различий в выборе стратегий вежливости британцами и американцами;

4) определить ряд стратегий и тактик, используемых британцами и американцами в различных ситуациях общения;

5) провести сравнительное исследование на материале situations containing requests and responses to them, extracted from works of contemporary British and American authors.

The object of the research is the process of communication, in which politeness is manifested.

The subject of the research is different ways of making conversation by which the verbal behavior of a person can be described as polite.

To achieve the objectives, the following methods were used: analysis of methodological literature; traditional descriptive method, including observation, analysis , classification and synthesis of study units; comparative method.

Empirical material is represented by the works of Stephen King and Moe Hyder, from which over 150 situations (containing requests and responses to them) have been extracted.

The theoretical significance of the work is determined by the value of the theoretical knowledge of the strategies of politeness and the way they allow speakers to reach the goals of communication.

The practical value of the work is in the possibility of using its results in the practice of teaching theoretical grammar, lexicology, communicative linguistics and the English language as foreign.

The structure of the thesis outlined above was defined in accordance with the purpose and objectives of the study. This work consists of an introduction, two chapters, summarizing conclusions for each chapter, conclusion and references.

In the introduction the relevance of research topic, its theoretical significance and practical value are justified, the object, subject and research problems are defined.

In the first chapter the definitions of politeness is given along with all the corresponding terms, provision of which is necessary to fully understand all the theoretical aspects of the topic.

The second chapter of this research contains classification of the typical conversational patterns, common and alternative phrases and structures which make one's discourse polite, along with the examples taken from works of different modern British and American authors.

In the conclusion the study is summarized, brief conclusions are formulated.

Scientific novelty of the research is determined by the fact that в ней впервые проводится детальное сравнительное исследование стратегий вежливости в британском и американском вариантах английского языка.

1. Politeness as a Subject of Scientific Research

1.1 The Notion of Politeness in Linguistics

The politeness is best expressed as the practical application of good manners or etiquette, a culturally defined phenomenon. According to Random House Webster's College Dictionary, it is the way of showing good manners towards others, as in behavior or speech. In the “Anthropological Linguistics: An introduction” by William Foley politeness is described as "a battery of social skills whose goal is to ensure everyone feels affirmed in a social interaction". ^{[1; 35]}

Politeness theory by Brown and Levinson

Since the notion of politeness is indissolubly related to following the rules of etiquette, a code of behavior (including verbal one) that delineates expectations for social behavior according to contemporary conventional norms within a society, it is important to investigate the inner motives and preconditions of the participants of the communication process to follow the generally received code of behavior. And what's more important for the purpose of this work - to study the reasons, which make people act according to the rules and guidelines that define the accepted type of verbal behavior within one particular culture. No doubt the normative guidelines of communication have been evolving with the society, having integrated into every aspect of our lives, which makes the following of this behavioral code reflex-like, but is the fact that we are taught to behave in a specific way the only reason why we try to be polite with each other in our everyday communication?

The answer to this question can be found in the studies by Brown and Levinson, where term politeness is related to the notion of “face” - the public self-image (self-esteem) that every member wants to claim for himself.

In their works, Brown and Levinson are showing that individual's self-esteem (face) motivates strategies of politeness (solidarity, restraint, avoidance of unequivocal impositions, etc.) ^{[2; 13]}

Face is the public self image that every adult tries to protect. In their 1987 book, Brown and Levinson defined positive face two ways: as "the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others executors", or alternately, "the positive consistent self-image or 'personality' (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants". Negative face was defined as "the want of every 'competent adult member' that his actions be unimpeded by others", or "the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction--i.e. the freedom of action and freedom from imposition". It's necessary to mention that term “face” has two sides according to “Politeness: Some universals in language usage” by Brown and Levinson:

Positive face

The positive consistent self-image or 'personality' (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants". It was also described as the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some other executors.

Positive Face refers to one's self-esteem.

Negative face

The basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction--i.e. to freedom of action and freedom from imposition. According to an alternative definition that can be found in the same literary source, the term “negative face” is explained as the want of every 'competent adult member' that his actions be unimpeded by others.

Negative face refers to one's freedom to act. ^{[3; 141]}

While positive face is the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others (in particular, it includes the desire to be ratified, understood, approved of, liked or admired), negative face is the want of every “competent adult member” that his actions be unimpeded by others?. ^{[4; 185]}

Ten years after the book “Politeness: Some universals in language usage” was published, Penelope Brown characterized positive face by desires to be liked, admired, ratified, and related to positively, noting that one would threaten positive face by ignoring someone. At the same time, she characterized negative face by the desire not to be imposed upon, noting that negative face could be impinged upon by imposing on someone. ^{[5; 36]} The two aspects of face are the basic wants in any social interaction, and so during any social interaction, cooperation is needed amongst the participants to maintain each other's faces. ^{[1; 25]}

Since face is maintained in the acts of communication with the other members of a certain social group, it is obvious that this very self image, which most people wish to keep positive, is affected by the opinions and appraisements of the other members of a given social group. No doubt a person, whose intention is not to let his self-image down, will always stick to the generally-accepted strategies of behavior (including verbal one), which is way of politeness. Also, the choice of the verbal line of communication is defined by the fact that communication participants have to mind the potential impact of chosen line of verbal behavior not only on the social relationships between the members of the given social circle as a whole, but also on the relations between certain communication partakers particularly. The last line can be summed up in a simple saying - “Do as you would be done by. Treat and respect others as you would hope to be respected and treated by them”.

Face threatening acts

In the works by Brown and Levinson, it is explained that positive and negative face exists universally in human culture. In social interactions, face-threatening acts are at times inevitable based on the terms of the conversation. A face threatening act is an act that inherently damages the face of the addressee or the speaker by acting in opposition to the wants and desires of the other. Most of these acts are verbal; however, they can also be conveyed in the characteristics of speech (such as tone, inflection, etc.) or in non-verbal forms of communication. At minimum, there must be at least one of the face threatening acts associated with an utterance. It is also possible to have multiple acts working within a single utterance. ^{[3; 124]}

Negative face-threatening acts

Negative face is threatened when an individual does not avoid or intend to avoid the obstruction of their interlocutor's freedom of action.^[3;132] It can cause damage to either the speaker or the hearer, and makes one of the interlocutors submit their will to the other. Freedom of choice and action are impeded when negative face is threatened.

Damage to the hearer

· An act that affirms or denies a future act of the hearer creates pressure on the hearer to either perform or not perform the act.

Examples: orders, requests, suggestions, advice, remindings, threats, or warnings.

· An act that expresses the speaker's sentiments of the hearer or the hearer's belongings.

Examples: compliments, expressions of envy or admiration, or expressions of strong negative emotion toward the hearer (e.g. hatred, anger, lust).

· An act that expresses some positive future act of the speaker toward the hearer. In doing so, pressure has been put on the hearer to accept or reject the act and possibly incur a debt.

Examples: offers, and promises. ^{[3; 139]}

Damage to the speaker

· An act that shows that the speaker is succumbing to the power of the hearer.

· Expressing thanks

· Accepting a thank you or apology

· Excuses

· Acceptance of offers

· A response to the hearer's violation of social etiquette

· The speaker commits himself to something he or she does not want to do ^{[3; 140]}

Positive face-threatening acts

Positive face is threatened when the speaker or hearer does not care about their interactor's feelings, wants, or does not want what the other wants. ^{[3; 142]} Positive face threatening acts can also cause damage to the speaker or the hearer. When an individual is forced to be separated from others so that their well being is treated less importantly, positive face is threatened.

Damage to the hearer

· An act that expresses the speaker's negative assessment of the hearer's positive face or an element of his/her positive face. The speaker can display this disapproval in two ways. The first approach is for the speaker to directly or indirectly indicate that he dislikes some aspect of the hearer's possessions, desires, or personal attributes. The second approach is for the speaker to express disapproval by stating or implying that the hearer is wrong, irrational, or misguided. ^{[3; 144]}

Examples: expressions of disapproval (e.g. insults, accusations, complaints), contradictions, disagreements, or challenges.

· An act that expresses the speaker's indifference toward the addressee's positive face. ^{[3; 145]}

· The addressee might be embarrassed for or fear the speaker.

Examples: excessively emotional expressions.

· The speaker indicates that he doesn't have the same values or fears as the hearer

Examples: disrespect, mention of topics which are inappropriate in general or in the context.

· The speaker indicates that he is willing to disregard the emotional well-being of the hearer.

Examples: belittling or boasting.

· The speaker increases the possibility that a face-threatening act will occur. This situation is created when a topic is brought up by the speaker that is a sensitive societal subject.

Examples: topics that relate to politics, race, religion.

· The speaker indicates that he is indifferent to the positive face wants of the hearer. This is most often expressed in obvious non-cooperative behavior.

Examples: interrupting, non-sequiturs.

· The speaker misidentifies the hearer in an offensive or embarrassing way. This may occur either accidentally or intentionally. Generally, this refers to the misuse of address terms in relation to status, gender, or age.

Example: Addressing a young woman as "ma'am" instead of "miss."

Damage to the speaker

· An act that shows that the speaker is in some sense wrong, and unable to control himself. ^{[3; 146]}

· Apologies: In this act, speaker is damaging his own face by admitting that he regrets one of his previous acts.

· Acceptance of a compliment

· Inability to control one's physical self

· Inability to control one's emotional self

· Self-humiliation

· Confessions

1.2 Politeness Strategies

Positive Politeness

To be short, positive politeness, addressed to the positive face, is the way of giving other participants of the social communication what it takes to keep up their self-image. Some people need a feeling of solidarity; some need another person to show interest in him/her, some just need an optimistic remark to cheer up.

Positive politeness strategies seek to minimize the threat to the hearer's positive face. They are used to make the hearer feel good about himself, his interests or possessions, and are most usually used in situations where the audience knows each other fairly well. ^{[1; 78]} In addition to hedging and attempts to avoid conflict, some strategies of positive politeness include statements of friendship, solidarity, compliments, and the following examples from Brown and Levinson: ^{[3; 164]}

· Attend to H's interests, needs, wants

You look sad. Can I do anything?

· Use solidarity in-group identity markers

Heh, mate, can you lend me a dollar?

· Be optimistic

I'll just come along, if you don't mind.

· Include both speaker (S) and hearer (H) in activity

If we help each other, I guess, we'll both sink or swim in this course.

· Offer or promise

If you wash the dishes, I'll vacuum the floor.

· Exaggerate interest in H and his interests

That's a nice haircut you got; where did you get it?

· Avoid Disagreement

Yes, it's rather long; not short certainly.

· Joke

Wow, that's a whopper!

Negative Politeness

Unlike the positive politeness, negative politeness is addressed to the negative face. The use of this type of politeness acts like a guarantee of non-imposing character of the utterance used by the speaker.

Negative politeness strategies are oriented towards the hearer's negative face and emphasize avoidance of imposition on the hearer. These strategies presume that the speaker will be imposing on the listener and there is a higher potential for awkwardness or embarrassment than in bald on record strategies and positive politeness strategies. Negative face is the desire to remain autonomous so the speaker is more apt to include an out for the listener, through distancing styles like apologies. ^{[1; 95]} Examples from Brown and Levinson include: ^{[3; 167]}

· Be indirect

Would you know where Oxford Street is?

· Use hedges or questions

Perhaps, he might have taken it, maybe.

Could you please pass the rice?

· Be pessimistic

You couldn't find your way to lending me a thousand dollars, could you?

So I suppose some help is out of the question, then?

· Minimize the imposition

It's not too much out of your way, just a couple of blocks.

· Use obviating structures, like nominalizations, passives, or statements of general rules

I hope offense will not be taken.

Visitors sign the ledger.

Spitting will not be tolerated.

· Apologize

I'm sorry; it's a lot to ask, but can you lend me a thousand dollars?

· Use plural pronouns

We regret to inform you.

Favor seeking, or a speaker asking the hearer for a favor, is a common example of negative politeness strategies in use. Held observes three main stages in favor-seeking: the preparatory phase, the focal phase, and the final phase: ^{[6; 45]}

1. The preparatory phase is when the favor-seeking is preceded by elaborate precautions against loss of face to both sides. It often involves signals of openings and markers to be used to clarify the situation (e.g. `You see,' or `so,'). The request is often softened, made less direct, and imposing (e.g. past continuous `I was wondering'; informal tag `What d'you reckon?). The speaker must also reduce his own self-importance in the matter and exaggerate the hearer's (down-scaling compliments).

2. The focal stage is subdivided into elements such as asker's reasons or constraints (e.g. `I've tried everywhere but can't get one'), the other's face (e.g. `You're the only person I can turn to'), and more.

3. The third stage is the final stage which consists of anticipatory thanks, promises, and compliments (e.g. `I knew you would say yes. You're an angel.').

An example that is given by McCarthy and Carter ^{[6; 53]} is the following dialogue from the Australian television soap opera, "Neighbours":

Clarrie: So I said to him, forget your books for one night, throw a party next weekend.

Helen: A party at number 30! What will Dorothy say about that?

Clarrie: Well, what she doesn't know won't hurt her. Of course, I'll be keeping my eye on things, and (SIGNAL OF OPENING) that brings me to my next problem. (EXPLAIN PROBLEM) You see, these young people, they don't want an old codger like me poking my nose in, so I'll make myself scarce, but I still need to be closer to hand, you see. So, (ASK FAVOR) I was wondering, would it be all right if I came over here on the night? What d'you reckon?

Helen: Oh, Clarrie, I...

Clarrie: Oh (MINIMIZATION) I'd be no bother. (REINFORCE EXPLANATION) It'd mean a heck of a lot to those kids.

Helen: All right.

Clarrie: (THANK WITH BOOST) I knew you'd say yes. You're an angel, Helen.

Helen: Ha! (laughs)

All of this is done in attempt to avoid a great deal of imposition on the hearer and is concerned with proceeding towards a goal in the smoothest way and with sensitivity to one's interlocutors. An English (`Excuse me, sir, could you please close the window') is associated with the avoidance or downplaying of an imposition; the more we feel we might be imposing, the more deferential we might be. It is clearly a strategy for negative politeness and the redressing of a threat to negative face, through things like favor-seeking.

Bald on-record

Bald on-record strategies usually do not attempt to minimize the threat to the hearer's face, although there are ways that bald on-record politeness can be used in trying to minimize face-threatening acts implicitly. Often using such a strategy will shock or embarrass the addressee, and so this strategy is most often utilized in situations where the speaker has a close relationship with the audience, such as family or close friends. Brown and Levinson outline various cases in which one might use the bald on-record strategy, including:

· Instances in which threat minimizing does not occur

· Great urgency or desperation

Watch out!

· Speaking as if great efficiency is necessary

Hear me out:...

· Task-oriented

Pass me the hammer.

· Little or no desire to maintain someone's face

Don't forget to clean the blinds!

· Doing the face-threatening act is in the interest of the hearer

Your headlights are on!

· Instances in which the threat is minimized implicitly

· Welcomes

Come in.

· Offers

Leave it, I'll clean up later.

Eat!

Off-record (indirect)

The final politeness strategy outlined by Brown and Levinson is the indirect strategy; This strategy uses indirect language and removes the speaker from the potential to be imposing. For example, a speaker using the indirect strategy might merely say “wow, it's getting cold in here” insinuating that it would be nice if the listener would get up and turn up the thermostat without directly asking the listener to do so.

1.3 Choice of Strategy

Paul Grice argues that all conversationalists are rational beings who are primarily interested in the efficient conveying of messages. ^{[7; 36]} Brown and Levinson use this argument in their politeness theory by saying that rational agents will choose the same politeness strategy as any other would under the same circumstances to try to mitigate face. They show the available range of verbal politeness strategies to redress loss of face. Face-threatening acts have the ability to mutually threaten face, therefore rational agents seek to avoid face-threatening acts or will try to use certain strategies to minimize the threat.

Speaker (S) will weigh: ^{[3; 190]}

1. the want to communicate the content of the face-threatening act in question

2. the want to be efficient or urgent

3. the want to maintain H's face to any degree

In most cooperative circumstances where 3. is greater than 2., S will want to minimize the face-threatening act.

The greater potential for loss of face requires greater redressive action. If the potential for loss of face is too great, the speaker may make the decision to abandon the face-threatening acts completely and say nothing.

The number next to each strategy corresponds to the danger-level of the particular face-threatening act. The more dangerous the particular face-threatening act is, the more S will tend to use a higher numbered strategy. ^{[3; 197]}

1. No redressive action

· Bald On-Record- leaves no way for H to minimize the face-threatening act.

2. Positive Redressive action

· S satisfies a wide range of H's desires not necessarily related to the face-threatening act.

· Shows interest in H

· Claims common ground with H

· Seeks agreement

· Gives sympathy

3. Negative Redressive action

· S satisfies H's desires to be unimpeded--the want that is directly challenged by the face-threatening act.

· Be conventionally indirect

· Minimize imposition on H

· Beg forgiveness

· Give deference

· This implies that the matter is important enough for S to disturb H

4. Off-Record

· S has the opportunity to evade responsibility by claiming that H's interpretation of the utterance as a face-threatening act is wrong

5. Don't do the face-threatening act.

1.4 Payoffs of the Strategies

In deciding which strategy to use, the speaker runs through the individual payoffs of each strategy. ^{[3; 199]}

· Bald on record

· enlists public pressure

· S gets credit for honesty, outspokenness which avoids the danger of seeming manipulative

· S avoids danger of being misunderstood

· Positive Politeness

· minimizes threatening aspect by assuring that S considers to be of the same kind with H

· criticism may lose much of its sting if done in a way that asserts mutual friendship

· when S includes himself equally as a participant in the request or offer, it may lessen the potential for face-threatening act debt

· “Let's get on with dinner” to a husband in front of the TV

· Negative Politeness

· Helps avoid future debt by keeping social distance and not getting too familiar with the addressee

· pays respect or deference by assuming that you may be intruding on the hearer in return for the face-threatening act.

· "I don't mean to bother you, but can I ask a quick question?"

· Off record

· get credit for being tactful, non-coercive

· avoid responsibility for the potentially face-damaging interpretation

· give the addressee an opportunity to seem to care for S because it tests H's feelings towards S

· If S wants H to close the window, he may say "It's cold in here." If H answers "I'll go close the window" then he is responding to this potentially threatening act by giving a “gift” to the original speaker and therefore S avoids the potential threat of ordering H around and H gets credit for being generous or cooperative

· Don't Do the face-threatening act.

· S avoids offending H at all

· S also fails to achieve his desired communication

1.5 Sociological Factors

Take into consideration three sociological factors when deciding whether and how to use the various strategies in real life situations

Depends on three factors: ^{[8; 76]}

1. Social distance between parties (symmetric relation)

· Distinguish kin or friend from a stranger with whom you may be of the same social status, but who is still separated by social distance

· Different face-threatening acts are used depending on the social distance between interlocutors

· Example: We may use less elaborate positive strategies or we may choose to use positive rather than negative politeness when speaking with family

2. Power relations between parties (asymmetric relation)

· we are inclined to speak to our social equals differently than those whose status is higher or lower than our own in a given situation

· Example: If a professor is working in her office and people are being very loud and disruptive in the next room, she will go over there and tell them to be quiet but the way she does it will differ depending on who it is

· If they are students she will use the bald on-record strategy to make sure there is no confusion in what she is asking

· Example: “Stop talking so loud!”

· If they are colleagues she will claim common ground with them using the positive politeness strategy or frame an indirect request for them to stop talking

· Example: “I'm working on a lecture and it's really hard to concentrate with all this noise.”

· If they are really high status directors of the department she may end up saying nothing at all or apologize for interrupting them

· Example: No face-threatening act

3. The absolute ranking of the threat of the face-threatening act

· Some impositions are greater than others. Highly imposing acts like requests demand more redress to mitigate their increased threat level.

Summary and Conclusions

The study of the theoretical aspects of this work enables to make following conclusions:

1. The politeness is a complicated term that varies from culture to culture.

2. In every linguistic culture there are strategies of politeness that are followed by the verbal interactants.

3. Each strategy has specific cases of application.

4. Each strategy has its own payoffs, thus it is possible to say that the choice of strategy of politeness is an important matter.

2. Culture-Specific Aspect of Politeness Strategy Implementation

In order to investigate the strategies of politeness used by the representatives of British and American linguistic cultures, it is necessary to refer to the literature of target cultures. politeness concept sociological implementation

The books chosen to be studied for the presence of the politeness strategies and the peculiarities of their influence of the results of the discourse are written by popular American and British writers, Stephen King and Moe Hyder respectively. They are appraised members of the literary community, their books are well known on every continent.

The choice of works for study has been influenced by the fact that the source of the practical information must contain life-like situations of interpersonal communication in target cultures, must reflect the social standards of the verbal behavior.

2.1 The Analysis of the Extracts from “Rose Madder” by Stephen King

Extract 1

As it was mentioned in the first chapter of this work, the positive politeness implies the satisfaction of the needs of positive face. But from the pragmatic point of view, the speaker may use this type of politeness to reach one's goals. Whether it is a way of getting something one needs by using flattering phrases or just a path to avoid confrontation, it is widely used by the partakers of the communication process. Here is an extract to illustrate the case:

'You ain't got a bad head 'tall, man,' Lowe said. He spoke tentatively, but Norman had no sense he was trying to flatter him, and that was good, because Norman was in no mood to have someone blow smoke up his ass. 'Look good. Look younger. Don't he, Dale?'

'Ain't bad,' the other newcomer agreed. 'Nossir, not half.'

'How much did you say?' Norman asked Samuel Lowe. He tried to turn away from the mirror and was distressed and a little frightened to find that his eyes tried to follow the top of his head, to see how it looked in the back. That sense of disassociation was stronger within him than ever. He wasn't the man in the mirror, the man with the scholar's bald head rising above heavy black eyebrows; how could he be? This was some stranger, that was all, some fantastic Lex Luthor up to no good in Metropolis, and the things he did from here on out didn't matter. From here on out, nothing mattered. Except catching Rose, of course. And talking to her. Up close.

Lowe was giving him that cautious look again, breaking it off to dart glances at the other two patrons, and Norman suddenly realized he was checking to see if they'd help him, if the big white man -- the big bald white man -- suddenly went berserk.

'I'm sorry,' he said, trying to make his voice soft and conciliatory.

'You were talking, weren't you? What did you say?'

'I said thirty sounds about right to me. How's it sound to you?'

Norman took a folded-over packet of bills out of his left front pocket, slid two twenties out from under the tarnished old moneyclip, and held them out.

'Thirty sounds too low,' he said. 'Take forty, along with my apologies. You did a great job.

I've just had a hell of a week, that's all.' You don't know the half of it, buddy, he thought.

Samuel Lowe relaxed visibly and took the money. 'No prob, bro,' he said. 'And I wasn't kiddin -- you ain't got a bad-lookin head at all. You ain't Michael, but ain't nobody Michael.'

In the extract above, it can be seen how the barber uses positive politeness to avoid the confrontation which may begin due to the fact that Norman Daniels may not like his new haircut. Being deep in his own thoughts, Norman's not replying to the barber's questions and seems disappointed and irritated. The barber then tries to soften the negative reaction by using flattering phrases ('You ain't got a bad head 'tall, man,').

When Norman realizes that his reaction is quite suspicious, and seems to be rather aggressive to the barber and his companions, he chooses to soften the feeling of an imminent confrontation by using a polite tone backed with the additional sum of money given for the barber's work. This step is obvious from the pragmatic point of view, since Norman Daniels does not want to draw any unnecessary attention, neither he wants to finish the visit to a barber in a negative way so that his new look will be associated with the incident, that was successfully avoided.

Strategies used:

Positive politeness

'You ain't got a bad head 'tall, man,' - exaggerating the interest in the communication partaker. Flattering phrase.

'Thirty sounds too low. Take forty, along with my apologies. You did a great job.' - apology, appraisal backed up with additional fee to avoid face-threatening.

Extract 2

The polite way includes a set of lexis which is usually used in everyday verbal interactions. It is expected to hear that lexis form people who work in a service sector. Phrases like “how can I help you/how can I be of assistance” are usually said by the people who work in restaurants, cafes, booking offices, etc.

“She went to the bank of ticket-windows and got into line. Her heart was thumping hard in her chest and her mouth was dry. Just before the person in front of her finished his transaction and moved away from the window, she put the back of her hand to her mouth and stifled a burp that burned coming up and tasted of her morning coffee.

You don't dare use either version of your name here, she cautioned herself. If they want a name, you have to give another one.

'Help you, ma'am?' the clerk asked, looking at her over a pair of half-glasses perched precariously on the end of his nose.

'Angela Flyte,' she said. It was the name of her best chum in junior high, and the last friend she had ever really made. At Aubreyville High School, Rosie had gone steady with the boy who had married her a week after her graduation, and they had formed a country of two . . . one whose borders were usually closed to tourists.

'Beg your pardon, ma'am?'

She realized she had named a person rather than a place, and how odd (this guy's probably looking at my wrists and neck, trying to see if the straitjacket left any marks) it must have sounded.”

Here we can see a very common beginning of a verbal interaction between the customer and a pay office cashier (Help you ma'am?). A very common phrase ('Beg your pardon, ma'am?') that follows Rose giving a name of her friend instead of place of destination, is also the kind of generally accepted lexis. Such phrases are commonly accepted and considered to be polite, therefore, used by the representatives of the service sector.

Strategies used:

Negative politeness

`Help you ma'am?'

'Beg your pardon, ma'am?'

Extract 3

Next extract illustrates same formal way of verbal interaction, but also demonstrates how the apologizing and hedges (forms of negative politeness) can be used in everyday speech.

She was reaching for the button again when a woman's voice came out of the speaker. It sounded tinny and emotionless.

'Can I help you?'

Although the man with the moustache outside The Wee Nip had frightened her and the pregnant woman had amazed her, neither had made her cry. Now, at the sound of this voice, the tears came -- there was nothing at all she could do to stop them.

'I hope someone can,' Rosie said, wiping at her cheeks with her free hand. 'I'm sorry, but I'm in the city all by myself, I don't know anyone, and I need a place to stay. If you're all full I understand, but could I at least come in and sit for awhile and maybe have a glass of water?'

There was more silence. Rosie was reaching for the button again when the tinny voice asked who had sent her.

'The man in the Travelers Aid booth at the bus station. David Slowik.' She thought that over, then shook her head. 'No, that's wrong. Peter. His name was Peter, not David.'

'Did he give you a business card?' the tinny voice asked.

'Yes.'

'Please find it.'

She opened her purse and rummaged for what felt like hours. Just as fresh tears began to prick at her eyes and double her vision, she happened on the card. It had been hiding beneath a wad of Kleenex.

'I have it,' she said. 'Do you want me to put it through the letter-slot?'

'No,' the voice said. 'There's a camera right over your head.'

She looked up, startled. There was indeed a camera mounted over the door and looking down at her with its round black eye.

'Hold it up to the camera, please. Not the front but the back.'

As she did so, she remembered the way Slowik had signed the business card, making his signature as large as he possibly could. Now she understood why.

'Okay,' the voice said. 'I'm going to buzz you inside.'

'Thanks,' Rosie said. She used the Kleenex to wipe at her cheeks but it did no good; she was crying harder than ever, and she couldn't seem to stop.

Interaction begins with commonly accepted phrase 'Can I help you?' In response to that, Rose chooses to use a form of negative politeness to ask for what she needs. She begins with apologizing ('I'm sorry, but I'm in the city all by myself'), then explaining the situation ('I don't know anyone, and I need a place to stay'), and finally, asking for help with the use of hedging ('If you're all full I understand, but could I at least come in and sit for awhile and maybe have a glass of water?')

Strategies used:

Negative politeness

'I'm sorry, but I'm in the city all by myself'- apologizing

'If you're all full I understand, but could I at least come in and sit for awhile and maybe have a glass of water?' - being pessimistic, using hedges.

Extract 4

'Help you, ma'am?'

She returned her attention to the man behind the counter, who had removed the loupe and was now looking at her with a friendly grin. His eyes were hazel with a greenish undertint, very pretty, and she wondered briefly if Pam might classify him as someone interesting. She guessed not. Not enough tectonic plates sliding around under the shirt.

'Maybe you can,' she said.

She slipped off her wedding ring and her engagement ring, then put the plain gold band into her pocket. It felt strange not to be wearing it, but she supposed she could get used to that. A woman capable of walking out of her own house for good without even a change of underwear could probably get used to quite a lot. She laid the diamond down on the velvet pad beside the old watch the jeweler had been working on.

'How much would you say that's worth?' she asked him. Then, as an afterthought, she added: 'And how much could you give me for it?'

In the extract above, a verbal interaction between the main character (Rose) and the jeweler is depicted. What we see here is a very formal 'Help you, ma'am?' which can be defined as a negative politeness strategy. The reply is not that formal ('Maybe you can'), which leaves some space for a possible change of strategy, but Rose doesn't seem to be interested much, and decides to switch to a formal way of negative politeness asking indirect questions ('How much would you say that's worth?; And how much could you give me for it?')

Strategies used:

Negative politeness

'How much would you say that's worth?'

'And how much could you give me for it?'

Extract 5

There was a loud click that made her jump.

'Ms McClendon?' It was the recording engineer's voice. 'Could you sit down in front of the mike so I can get a level?'

She wasn't sure she could. She wasn't sure she could even move. She was rooted to the spot, looking across the room to where the head of the mike was pointing at her like the head of some dangerous, futuristic snake. Even if she did manage to cross the room, nothing would come out of her mouth once she sat down, not so much as a single dry squeak.

The interaction in this extract begins with the common question related to the strategy of negative politeness. Recording engineer uses standard indirect question 'Could you sit down in front of the mike so I can get a level?'

This doesn't seem to help Rose to overcome her nervous condition, so another person in the room joins the conversation using the same strategy.

'Rosie?' That was Rob Lefferts. 'Would you sit down so Curt can get a level?'

He didn't know, neither of the men knew, but Rhoda Simons did . . . or suspected, at least.

She had taken the pencil which had been sticking out of her hair and was doodling on a pad in front of her. She wasn't looking at what she was doodling, though; she was looking at Rosie, and her eyebrows were drawn together in a frown.

And only another woman in the room can help Rose to deal with her unstable condition and get to work. A simple question based on the positive politeness strategy helps her to stick together and overcome the nervousness.

'Rosie?' It was Rhoda Simons's voice coming through the speakers. 'Are you all right?'

'Yes,' she said, and was relieved to find that her voice was still there, only a little croaky.

'I'm thirsty, that's all. And scared to death.'

'There's a cooler filled with Evian water and fruit juices under the left side of the table,'

Rhoda said. 'As for being afraid, that's natural. And it will pass.'

'Give me a little more, Rosie,' Curtis invited. He had a pair of earphones on now, and was tweaking a row of dials.

The panic was passing, thanks to the woman in the rose madder gown. As a calmative, thinking of her even beat fifteen minutes of rocking in Pooh's Chair.

Strategies used:

Negative politeness

'Could you sit down in front of the mike so I can get a level?'

'Would you sit down so Curt can get a level?'

Positive politeness

'Are you all right?'

'As for being afraid, that's natural. And it will pass.'

Extract 6

The telephone was picked up. 'Hello?' A voice she now heard in her dreams.

'Hello, Bill.' It wasn't her normal speaking voice, not even a whisper, not really. It was more like the husk of a whisper.

'Rosie!' he cried, sounding delighted. 'Hey, how are you?'

His unaffected, undisguised delight only made it worse; all of a sudden it felt as if someone were twisting a knife in her guts. 'I can't go out with you on Saturday,' she said, speaking rapidly. The tears were coming faster now, oozing from beneath her eyelids like some nasty hot grease. 'I can't go out with you at all. I was crazy to think I could.'

'Of course you can! Jesus, Rosie! What are you talking about?'

The beginning of the discourse in this extract contains the phrases of the positive politeness strategy. The overall tone also indicates that the interactants are more or less close to each other and are able to have a relatively easy conversation within the strategy of positive politeness. But this time something changed. Rose doesn't want to accept the invitation for a date, so she has to be strict.

The panic in his voice -- not the anger she had half-expected, but real panic -- was bad, but somehow the bewilderment was worse. She couldn't stand it.

'Don't call me and don't come over,' she told him, and suddenly she could see Norman with horrible clarity, standing across from her building in the pouring rain with the collar of his overcoat turned up and a streetlight faintly illuminating the lower half of his face -- standing there like one of the hellish, brutal villa ins in a novel by 'Richard Racine.'

'Rosie, I don't understand -- '

'I know, and that's actually for the best,' she said. Her voice was wavering, starting to break apart. 'Just stay away from me, Bill.'

Having declined the invitation she tries to make sure the person she is talking to will be out of her social circle. Thus, she has to use bald-on record strategy to be strict. But still it is not enough to end the relationships, so the use of this strategy can be considered unsuccessful.

Strategies used:

Positive politeness

'Hey, how are you?'

Bald on-record

'Don't call me and don't come over.'

'Just stay away from me, Bill.'

Extract 7

She glanced at her watch, then at the hotdog stand on the corner just ahead. There were benches on a small grassy strip nearby, and secretaries eating their lunches.

'Would you buy a lady a foot-long with sauerkraut?' she asked. Suddenly a case of afternoon burps seemed like the least important thing in the world. 'I haven't had one of those since I was a kid.'

'I think it could be arranged.'

'We can sit on one of those benches and I'll tell you about Norman, as in Bates. Then you can decide if you want to be around me or not. If you decide you don't want to be, I'll understand -- '

'Rosie, I won't -- '

'Don't say that. Not until I've told you about him. And you'd better eat before I start, or you're apt to lose your appetite.'

In this extract it is clearly seen how people are trying to reestablish friendly relationships after one of them has tried to sever the relations between them. The interaction is held within the strategy of negative politeness at first ('Would you buy a lady a foot-long with sauerkraut?'; 'I think it could be arranged.'), but then Rose switches to positive strategy to include both her and her interaction partner in the upcoming discourse ('We can sit on one of those benches and I'll tell you about Norman, as in Bates.')

Strategies used

Negative politeness

'Would you buy a lady a foot-long with sauerkraut?'

'I think it could be arranged.'

Positive politeness

'We can sit on one of those benches and I'll tell you about Norman, as in Bates.'

Extract 8

'Hi,' she said, looking down from her place. 'You're on time.'

'Sure,' he said, looking up from his. He seemed faintly surprised. 'I'm always on time. It's the way I was raised. I think it might have been bred in my genes, too.' He held one gloved hand up to her, like a cavalier in a movie. He smiled. 'Are you ready?'

…

'You look good,' he said. 'Kind of funny, like a kid playing dress-up, but good. Really.'

She thought she could now say what she hadn't been able to when she and Bill had been sitting on the bench and eating hotdogs, and it suddenly seemed very important that she should say it.

'Bill?'

He looked at her with that little smile, but his eyes were serious. 'Yeah?'

'Don't hurt me.'

He considered this, the little smile staying on, his eyes still grave, and then he shook his head.

'No. I won't.'

'Do you promise?'

'Yeah. I promise. Come on, climb aboard. Have you ever ridden an iron pony before?'