The notion of translation

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1. The notion of translation

Translation - a process of conveying or rendering the meaning (content) of SL units in the TL as well as the result of this process.

There are 2 forms of translation: 1) in writing and 2) in viva voce (orally).

Translation conveys the meaning of the following language units:

The phoneme - is a speech sound, the smallest 1-facet language unit, it has a form but has no meaning. Phonemes are graphically represented by letters. Phonemes usually do not take part in the process of translation, but they are used in translation of proper names, geographical names, internationalisms, neologisms and units of specific national lexicon.

“a”, І-в-а-н-о-в - I-v-a-n-o-v

The morpheme - is the smallest indivisible 2-facet language unit (has both form and meaning). It is the smallest sense unit.

superprofit - надприбуток, cloudless - безхмарний

The word - is the basic 2-facet language unit. The word is the smallest independent sense unit. Words are divisible (for morphemes).

blackboard - дошка, strawberry - полуниця, dog - собака

The word group/word-combination - is the largest 2-facet lexical unit comprising more that 1 word.

first night - прем'єра

The sentence - is a 2-facet unit of speech which conveys a more or less complete thought.

Every dark cloud has a silver lining. - Немає лиха без добра.

A cat may look at a king. - Дивитися не заборонено.

The text - is the largest 2-facet language unit, consisting of sentences bound by the same idea.

Two languages are involved into translation process.

The Source language (SL) - is the language of the original / the language from which the process of translation is performed.

The Target language (TL) - is the language of the translation / the language into which the process of translation is performed.

Translation may imply any sense-to-sense substitution of a SL unit for its semantic (=having the same meaning) equivalent in the TL.

I live in Kiev - Я живу в Києві

first night - перша ніч

pretty woman - гарна жінка

Translation may imply any sense-to-sense conveying even if the lexical meaning of the constituents which make up a SL unit is not replaced with the identical lexical meaning in the TL.

First night - прем'єра

pretty woman - красунечка

Translation may imply any functional substitution at the text level. It is aimed at recreating the function of a SL unit. Is used in the translation of titles and stylistic devices.

“The Village” - “Таємничий ліс” (the title was changed for marketing purposes)

“Some like it hot” - “В джазі лише дівчата”

“Over the hedge” - “Лісова братва”

Significance of translation

The importance of translation in the modern society has long been recognized. Not a single contact at the international level or between 2 foreign persons can be established without the help of translation. Translation is important for functioning of different international bodies. Numerous branches of national economies can be kept up with the modern development thanks to the everyday translation. The other branches of human activity dealing with the translation are: nuclear science, exploration of outer space, ecology, mining, medicine, electronics etc. The social and political role of translation has been the most felt in the XX-XXI century when it provided the dissemination (=spreading) of political ideas. Translation is a perfect means of sharing achievements and enriching the national languages, literatures and cultures. Finally, whatever the type of matter is translated, the linguistic and social significance of translation remains unchanged because it promotes the enrichment of lexicon in the target language.

2. Translation as a means of interlingual communication

Translation makes possible an exchange of information between users of different languages by producing the TL text which has an identical communicative value with the SL text.

Help yourself - пригощайтеся

Bless you - будь здоров

However, the TLT is not fully identical with the SLT as to its form or meaning/content due to the limitations imposed by the formal and semantic differences between the SL and the TL.

But the users of the translation (translation receptors) identify the TLT with the SLT functionally, semantically and structurally. There are 3 types of identification:

The functional identification - the TLT (the translation) functions as if it were the SLT (quoted, published, cited etc.).

The structural identification - the structure of translation (of the TLT) should follow that of the original. There should be no change in the sequence of narration or in the arrangement of the segments in the text (not the structure of every sentence!)

The semantic identification - the TLT (the translation) should have the same meaning as the SLT (the original) (the meaning of the whole text, not every word, otherwise it would be word-for-word translation, not literary artistic/proper).

No exchange of information is possible if there is a discrepancy between the original and the translation.

The translator is allowed to resort to different translation transformations if direct translation is impossible for some reasons.

3. Literal translation is used at the level of separate words, which have the same lexical meaning and similar form in the SL and in the TL

President - президент computer - комп'ютер

There are 2 ways of performing literal translation: transcription and transliteration.

Transcription is the substitution of sounds in the process of translation.

New-Castle - Нью-Касл

impeachment - імпічмент (but not імпеачмент)

leader - лідер

Transliteration is the substitution of letters in the process of translation.

London - Лондон (but not Ландан) bank - банк

Dublin - Дублін club - клуб

Literal translation renders the meaning of the following words: 1) proper names (Іванов - Ivanov), 2) geographical names (Дніпро -Dnipro), 3)international words (football - футбол), 4)units of specific national lexicon (вареники - varenyky), 5)neologisms (metrosexual - метросексуал).

Literal translation is not used to render the meaning of the so called translator's false friends.

The translator's false friends are those words that have similar form but different meaning in the SL and in the TL.

magazine - журнал (but not магазин)

lunatic - божевільний, шалений (but not лунатик)

artist - художник, митець (but not артист)

Verbal translation is used at the level of separate words, which have the same lexical meaning but different lingual form in the SL and in the TL.

Verbal translation renders sometimes the morphological structure of the SL words (ex. helpless - безпорадний, superprofit - надприбуток).

In most cases, the morphological structure is not preserved because of the differences in the morphological systems of the SL and the TL.

bomber - терорист

manager - управляючий

Verbal translation permits the choice of variants, which is practically impossible in literal translating:

minister - міністр (literal), посланник, священик (verbal)

bank - банк (literal), берег (річки), край, мілина, вал/насип (verbal)

Verbal translation, however, does not provide a faithful conveying of sense/content at other than word level. When employed at the level of word-combinations or sentences it may often make the language units ungrammatical and pervert or completely ruin their sense:

I am reading now - is not Я є читаючий зараз but Я читаю зараз

to take measures - is not брати міри but вживати заходів

4. Word-for-word translation/ consecutive verbal translation (дослівний послідовний) is used at the level of word-combinations and sentences, which have the same structure, word order, and the same lexical meanings of the constituents in the SL and the TL

Who took my book? - Хто взяв мою книжку?

Word-for-word translation is often used at the initial stage of translation. It does not always work with phraseological units (cold as a cucumber - незворушний, sober as a judge, drunk as a lord) except some cases when a phraseological unit is taken from a third language - Latin or Greek (to cross the Rubicon - перейти Рубікон).

Interlinear translation is used for a faithful rendering of the meaning (but not structure) expressed by word-combinations and sentences, which are different in structure, at the level of some text. The sense of phraseological units is not conveyed.

Interlinear translation may be practically applied to all speech units (sentences, passages etc.)

It is used at the higher level of translator's activity. It is performed with transformations when there is no identical form in the TL.

Interlinear translation offers more variants than word-for-word translation.

Who took my book? - Де моя книжка?/ У кого моя книжка?

Various transformations in interlinear and literary translations are inevitable because of grammatical/structural, stylistic and other divergences in the SL and in the TL.

She said she would come. - Вона сказала, що прийде.

Transformations are also inevitable when there is no direct equivalent for the SL units in the TL.

a trip - коротка подорож, to ski - їздити на лижах

Interlinear translation is widely practiced at the intermediary and advanced stages of studying a foreign language.

But it doesn't convey the literary merits/artistic features and beauty of the original (e.g. translation of a stanza or passage)

5. Literary translation represents the highest level of a translator's activity. It can be either literary artistic or literary proper depending on the type of the matter under translation

Literary artistic translation (художній літературний) is used to translate prose or poetry and faithfully conveys the content and artistic merits of belles-lettres /bel'letr/ texts or passages of the literary text.

Literary proper translation (власний літературний) is used to translate some texts that may include scientific or technical matter, business correspondence, newspapers and documents. In short, any printed or recorded matter devoid of artistic merits (epithets, metaphors etc.).

Literary translations are always performed with many transformations because of stylistic differences between the SL and the TL. Transformations are necessary to convey the meaning of the original, and to achieve ease and beauty of the original composition.

Literary proper/artistic translation of a larger passage often requires some additional research or linguistic, historical and other enquiries in order to clarify the obscure places (historic events, units of specific national lexicon, neologisms, archaisms etc.). Sometimes even the title of a work may require a philological or historical inquiry.

Ex. «Слово о Полку Ігоревім» - “A word about Ihor's Regiment” (in a word-for-word translation, which doesn't correspond to the real meaning)

“The Tale/ lay of the Host of Ihor”, “The Song of Igor's Campaign”, “Prince Igor's Raid against the Polovtsi” (which corresponds to the real meaning of the title - повість, пісня про Ігореве військо, дружину)

«Тихий Дон» (М.Шолохов) - “And Quiet Flows the Don” or “The Don Flows home to the Sea” (a word-for word translation “The Quiet Don” or “The Still Don” would not convey the poetic flavour of the original title)

These variants could have been suggested by the translator only after a deep inquiry into the novel's content, into its main idea and into the whole system of images of these works.

6. KINDS OF TRANSLATION

The sense of a language unit (the content of a whole matter) can be conveyed in the TL either in writing or in viva voce (orally). Depending on the form of conveying the sense/content, the following kinds of translating/ interpreting (oral translating) are to be distinguished:

1. The written translation/-ing from a written matter/source - is a faithful conveying of a matter translating in writing from one language into another. It represents a literary or any other faithful sense-to-sense translation from or into a foreign language. It may also be a free interpreting performed in writing. The matter under translation may be different, ex. a belles-lettres passage (prose or poetry work), a scientific or technical, newspaper passage, article or even separate words (in a list) etc.

2. The oral translation/-ing from an oral matter/source - is a faithful conveying of a speech or recording (жива мова або запис).

It can proceed/ be performed in 2 ways:

· in succession - after the whole matter or a part of it was heard. Then it is consecutive translation (послідовний). There is a possibility to interrupt or stop the speaker or recording in order to clarify some obscure places. As a result, consecutive interpreting can take more or a little less time then the SL speech or recording lasts.

· simultaneously (with its sounding) - the process of translation takes quite the same amount of time as the SL matter lasts and the interpreter faithfully conveys the meaning/content (синхронний). It is usually performed with some special equipment, technical devices (microphone, headphones)

3. The oral translation/-ing from a written matter/source - is interpreting at sight. It can also proceed either simultaneously with the process of getting acquainted with the content of the written matter, or in succession (after each part of the matter is first read through and comprehended (обміркований, осягнутий). The former way of interpreting, if carried out faithfully and exactly on time with the consecutive conveying of the matter, may be considered simultaneous too. Usually it is a regular prepared beforehand kind of interpreting.

4. The written translation/-ing from an orally presented matter/source is a rare occurrence, because a natural speech flow is too fast for putting it down in the TL (except for a shorthand presentation, which would be then a regular translation i.e. (that is to say) interpretation from a written matter). Translating from an oral speech/recording is now and than resorted to for training practices. When the matter to be rendered is produced at a slower speed than the written translation, this matter/speech can naturally be performed and put down in the TL.

7. Machine translation is a sub field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of computer software to translate text or speech from SL to TL

If it is basic level, MT performs a simple substitution of words in one natural language for words in another. Using corpus techniques, more complex translation may be attempted, allowing for better handling of differences in linguistic typology, phrase recognition, and translation of idioms, as well as the isolation of anomalies.

Human interference into machine translation is represented with pre-editing, proof-reading and post-editing practice.

Machine translating has made considerable progress in recent years. Nevertheless, its employment remains restricted because machine translation can be performed only on the basis of programs elaborated by linguistically trained operators.

Machine translation may be successful at the level of separate words, sometimes word-combinations and simple sentences and quite seldom at the level of text.

Advantages of machine translation are: its speed and rich lexicon of its dictionaries, which can be useful for translation at the level of words.

Disadvantages: preparing programs for any matter is connected with great difficulties and takes much time, when the quality of translation is far from being always satisfactory even at the lexical level - at the level of words, which have direct equivalent lexemes in the TL.

ex. London - is the capital of GB. - Лондон - капітал Великобританії

Greater difficulties are connected with morphological elements (endings, suffixes, prefixes) and syntactic units (word combinations, sentences) with various means of connection between their parts. There are frequent violations of syntactic agreement and government between the parts of the sentence in the machine translated texts. Neither can the machine translator select in its memory the correct order of words in word-combinations and sentences in the TL.

As a result, any machine translation needs a thorough proof-reading and editing, which can take even more time than the hand-made translation.

8.Antonymic translation is a complex transformation in which an affirmative in sense or structure SL unit is rendered as a negative in sense or structure but identical in meaning TL unit or vice versa

It is a complex transformation, which describes the situation from the opposite point of view. (2nd definition)

Take it easy. - Не переймайся. (an affirmative SL unit corresponds to a negative TL unit)

Немає лиха без добра. - Every dark cloud has a silver lining.

I mean it! - Я не жартую!

Antonymic translation is used:

1. when there is no direct equivalent for the SL units in the TL:

He was in (his) short-sleeves. - Він був без піджака. (to be in (one's) short-sleeves - means not wearing a jacket, it has no direct equivalent in Ukrainian language and is translated automatically - без піджака)

Я думаю, що він не здасть екзамен. - I think he will fail the exam./ I don't think he will pass the exam.

The defeat of the team was the result of its inferiority. - Поразка команди була наслідком переваги суперників.

Do you mind - ви не проти

2. when a SL unit has 2 negations which create an affirmation:

She was by no means non-elegant. - Вона була досить елегантною. (This sentence contains 2 negations: by no means and non-elegant, which corresponds to an affirmation досить елегантною)

The door was not unlocked. - Двері були зачинені.

3. to achieve a necessary expressiveness:

A bomb fell close. - Бомба впала неподалік.

No, it makes all the difference in the world. - Ні, не все одно!

I don't think it will hurt you. - Думаю, вам це не зашкодить. (I don't think - Думаю, will hurt you - не зашкодить)

I hope you will stay. - Сподіваюся ви не втечете.

She was a woman of character. - Вона була жінкою не без характеру. (експресивне речення)

4. to avoid the repetition of the same structure close to each other in the same text:

She didn't utter a word and he said nothing. - Вона промовчала і він нічого не сказав.

9.Descriptive translation is a complex transformation which is used to explain the meaning of SL units, often with the help of hierarchically different TL units. For example, a word may be translated as a word-combination or vice versa

Descriptive translation may be used:

1) to render the meaning of equivalent-lacking units, for instance:

§ units of specific national lexicon:

Верховна Рада - The Ukrainian Parliament (Descriptive), Verkhovna Rada (Literal), Supreme Council (word-for-word), Supreme Rada (mixed)

вареники - a traditional Ukrainian dish, mea or fruit dumplings (Descriptive), varenyky (literal)

§ neologisms:

stepwife - the current wife of a women's ex-husband or the ex-wife of a current husband (зведена дружина - теперішня дружина колишнього чоловіка або колишня дружина теперішнього чоловіка)

leather spinster - a successful heterosexual woman who is happily unmarried (успішна гетеросексуальна жінка, яка свідомо не прагне шлюбу)

Delhi belly - a disordered/ upset stomach (розлад шлунку)

himbo - a man who is good-looking but unintelligent or superficial (хімбо - чоловік, привабливий ззовні, але інтелектуально нерозвинутий і досить поверховий)

bimbo - a girl of the same qualities (бімбо - дівчина або молода жінка таких же якостей - приваблива, але поверхова)

gaydar - an intuitive sense that enables someone to identify whether another person is gay (гейдар - здатність (дар) розпізнавати нетрадиційну орієнтацію іншої людини (геїв)

2) to render the meaning of phraseological units or idioms:

as mad as a hatter - навіжений

to have light fingers - бути нечистим на руку

to rain cats and dogs - лити як з ведра

burn not your house to rid it of the mouse - жертвувати великим, щоб уникнути малої неприємності (співвідносити засоби та ціль)

3) in footnotes to explain obscure places in narration

spiritual - спірічуел, релігійна пісня афроамериканців

Within the text the word “metrosexual” may be referred to as метросексуал or in a footnote explained - чоловік, який витрачає багато часу та грошей на свою зовнішність та спосіб життя

10. UNITS OF TRANSLATION

Since the formal description of any language is based on distinguishing a system of interrelated language units, it is possible to assume that the process of translation may be viewed on the basis of distinguishing certain units (units of translation). There are different approaches to distinguishing units of translation.

APPROACH # 1

The unit of translation is the smallest unit of the SL text, functioning in the process of translation more or less independently. The units of translation may be different for different languages and different kinds of translation. There are 2 kinds of translation: written and oral.

In written translation the unit of translation is usually represented by a sentence or sometimes 2 consecutive sentences - if one of them is structurally or semantically incomplete. These sentences usually contain all the information necessary to recreate the structure of a corresponding sentence in the TL. The sentence - is a speech unit which contains a more or less complete thought and that is why it may function more or less independently in the process of translation.

ex. After all they all have day jobs. Not so Seed. - Зрештою, у них у всіх є робота, окрім Сіда. (the 2nd sentence is incomplete)

Your presence at the meeting is not necessary. Nor is it desirable. - Ваша присутність на зустрічі є необов'язковою і навіть небажаною.

In oral translation, especially synchronized translation, the unit of translation is usually represented by a sense group (a group of words, which expresses the main idea) or a sentence, especially if elements important for understanding are located at the end of the sentence.

ex. Mediators from 3 west African ECOWAS nations planned today to visit rebels in Ivory Coast as France flew in 70 more soldiers to assist the Ivorian government. - Сьогодні посередники від 3 африканських країн-членів ЕКОВАС планували зустрітися з повстанцями в Кот-д'Івуарі. В той час як Франція відрядила до країни ще 70 військових на допомогу івуарійському урядові.

(This sentence represents 2 units of translation, since it consists of 2 sence groups. The 1st unit of tr. is ..., the 2nd - …)

11.APPROACH # 2 (= LEVELS OF TRANSLATION)

The unit of translation is the smallest SL unit which is translated as a whole. It means that in the TLT it is impossible to discover TL units reproducing the meaning of the constituents, which make up the SL unit.

ex. pretty woman - красунечка (не можна віднайти безпосереднього відбиття лексичних одиниць)

help yourself - пригощайтеся (translated as a whole)

Each unit of translation belongs to a certain language level. So, every translation is performed at a definite language level.

The phoneme level

The phoneme - is a speech sound, the smallest 1-facet language unit, it has a form but has no meaning. This unit of translation is mainly relevant to the translation of proper names, geographical names, internationalisms, units of specific national lexicon and neologisms.

Bush - Буш (а не Кущ), гривня - hryvnia, dollar - долар,

computer - комп'ютер, вареники - varenyky

The morpheme level

The morpheme - is the smallest indivisible 2-facet language unit (has both form and meaning). It is the smallest sense unit.

superprofit - надприбуток, cloudless - безхмарний

The word level

The word - is the basic 2-facet language unit. The word is the smallest independent sense unit. Words are divisible (for morphemes).

blackboard - дошка ( - if translated at a word level, if translated as чорна дошка - it is a morpheme level)

strawberry - полуниця, dog - собака

The word-combination level

The word-combination - is the largest 2-facet lexical unit comprising more that 1 word.

first night - прем'єра

to come up roses - чудово виходити

The sentence level

The sentence - a 2-facet speech unit which conveys a more or less complete thought.The sentence may express a statement,a command or a question.

Every dark cloud has a silver lining. - Немає лиха без добра.

A cat may look at a king. - Дивитися не заборонено.

Будь здоров! - Bless you!

The text level

The text - is the largest 2-facet language unit, consisting of sentences bound by the same idea. This unit of translation may function in poetry.

12. EQUIVALENCE IN TRANSLATION

Translation equivalence - is a measure of semantic similarity between the SLT and TLT. The degree of semantic similarity may be different since the equivalence ST and TT may be based on the reproduction of different parts of the ST content. So, several types translation equivalence can be distinguished:

1st type of Translation Equivalence implies retention in the translation of the purport (=the purpose, the general intent, the intention) of communication. Ex.

Flies go to the lean horce - На похиле дерево і кози скачуть

An absolute dissimilarity of language units is accompanied by the absence of any obvious logical link between the ST and TT. But the information retained in the translation (=the purport of com. ) is enough to ensure an adequate communication.

2nd type of TE implies retention in the translation of the purport of communication and the identification of the situation.

You see one man - you have seen them all - Всі чоловіки однакові

The ST and TT are based on the same situation which is described differently in the original and the translation.

Most of the words and syntactical structures of the original have no direct correspondences in the

translation.

3rd type of TE implies retention in the translation of the purport of communication, the identification of the situation and the method of describing the situation.

He is a big eater - Він багато їсть

The translation retains the same general notions (semes) as the original. The translation may be viewed as a semantic paraphrase of the original which preserves its basic notions and allows their free reshuffle/rearrangement in the sentence.

4th type of TE implies retention in the translation of the purport of communication, the identification of the situation, the method of describing the situation and the syntactical structure.

I saw you dancing - Я бачив, як ти танцювала

The English complex object “you dancing” corresponds to the Ukrainian object clause «як ти танцювала» (підрядне речення додатку)

5th type of TE of the translation equivalents implies in the translation of the purport of communication, the identification of the situation, the method of describing the situation, the syntactical structure and word semantics (the meaning of the words used in the original text).

Every translation can be regarded as belonging to a certain type of equivalence. Since each subsequent type of equivalence implies a higher degree of semantic similarity it is possible to say that every translation is made at a certain level of equivalence.

The following levels of equivalence can be distinguished:

The level of purportive communication;

The level of the identification of the situation;

“-“ method of describing the situatin;

“-“ invariant meanings of the synthetic structure;

“-“ word semantics.

13. Translation equivalets

Since language units often function in their accepted meanings, many SL units have regular

equivalents in the TL. Regular equivalents are divided into permanent and non-permanent (variable)

Permanent equivalents are based in a one-to-one correspondence between SL and TL units (proper names, internationalisms, scientific terms).

(ex. phoneme - фонема)

This type of correspondence is found with proper and geographical names, technical terms and similar words whose meaning is more or less independent of any context.

Ex. London - Лондон, Україна -- Ukraine

Non-permanent equivalents are based on one-to-many correspondence between SL and TL units.

Ex. execution - виконання, cmpama

Minister - міністр, священник

This type of correspondence is characteristic of most regular equivalents. The existence of non-permanent equivalents implies the necessity of selecting one of them in the process of translation.

The choice of a non-permanent equivalent depends on the context in which the SL unit is used. There are 2 types of context:

l. The linguistic context is made up by the other SL units used in the ST.

Політика

а) зовнішня політика - foreign policy

б) йти в політику - go into politics

2. Extra linguistic - is the context of the situation in which the SL unit is used

I got it -

а) я зрозумів

б) я спіймав

в) я отримав

Sometimes the context does not allow any of the regular equivalents to the given SL unit. Than the translator resorts to occasional equivalents, that is to say equivalents which are created in the process of translation to fit on certain context.

He graduated from New Heven - Він закінчив Єльський університет

Depending on the type of the language units involved in the process of translation, translation equivalents are divided into:

Lexical - it can be both permanent (імена, географічні назви) and non-permanent

Peter the Great - Петро Великий

The Persian Gulf - Перська Затока

Minister - міністр, священник, посланник

Phraseological equivalents also can be permanent and non-permanent. May be based on the same or different images

Same:

to cross the Rubicon - nepeйmu Рубікон

The axis of evil - вісь зла

Different:Ліс рубають - тріски летять - You cannot make an omlet without breaking eggs

Non-permanent phraseological equivalents are usually based on different images. One

phraseological unit may have more than one equivalent in TL

Без труда нема плода - a) no pains, no gains

b) no sweet without some sweat

c) a cat in gloves catches no mice

Grammatical equivalens cannot be permanent

The Ukrainian President (adjective) - Президент України (noun)

There are practically no permanent grammatical equivalents. Non-permanent equivalents in the sphere of grammar are either analogous forms or different forms with similar meaning.

Ex. Reception given by the Ukrainian embassy -- Прийом, який було влаштовано посольством України/прийом влаштований посольством України (here the English Participle given may be translated as a Ukrainian Participle влаштований or було влаштовано - a subordinate attributive clause)

The use of occasional grammatical equivalents is much more common than the use of occasional lexical or phraseological equivalents.

14. TRANSLATION OF EQUIVALENT-LACKING UNITS

Since language units often function in their accepted meanings, many SL units have regular equivalents in the TL. A number of SL units have no regular equivalents in the TL. The absence of regular equivalents makes the translator resort to occasional equivalents, which can be created in different ways.

Equivalent-lacking words may be translated in one of the following ways:

1. by imitating the form of a SL word/word group through transcription, transliteration or loan translation. In the course of time such occasional equivalents may get the status of regular equivalents, especially if they are important and frequently used in communication:

Ex. impeachment - імпічмент ( transcription), inauguration - інавгурація (transliteration), brain wash - промивка мізків (loan translation)

2. by using approximate substitutes, i.e. TL words with similar meaning

Ex. drug store - аптека (drug store sells medicine as well as other goods, so the choice of the variant depends on the context)

3. using lexical transformations (ex. The word “exposure” is equivalent-lacking in the meaning of “the medical condition caused when smb has been exposed to severe weather conditions”, so its meaning is modulated in the process of translation. Accordingly the sentence “He died of exposure” may be translated as “Він помер від переохолодження/сонячного удару”)

or the same word drugstore may be translated as крамниця, so its meaning may be generalized.

4. by using descriptive translation - is a complex transformation which is used to explain the meaning of SL units, often with the help of hierarchically different TL units. For example, a word may be translated as a word-combination or vice versa.

landslide - переконлива перемога на виборах, перемога зі значним відривом

Equivalent-lacking phraseological units are translated in one of the following ways:

1. by word-for word translation (ex. people who live in glass shouldn't throw stones - людям, які живуть у склі краще не кидати каміння)

2. by explaining their meaning by descriptive translation (ex. to dine with duke Humphrey - залишитись без обіду, white elephant - подарунок, який замість задоволення приносить багато клопоту)

Equivalent-lacking grammatical units are translated in one of the following ways:

1. by using zero translations - the meaning of an equivalent-lacking unit is not rendered because it is practically identical to the meaning of some other SL units and may be left out:

Ex. By that time he had already left - До того часу він вже поїхав (Here the Past Perf. Tense is equivalent-lacking, the meaning of the Past Perf. Tense is not conveyed by the verb left, because it is identical to the word “already” and “by that time”).

2. by using approximate substitutes - TL units with similar form

Ex. I heard him playing the piano - Я чув як він грав на піаніно (Here a complex object clause - him playing corresponds to a subordinate object clause - як він грав

3. by using grammatical transformations

Ex. Your presence is not obligatory. Nor is it desirable - Ваша присутність є необов'язковою та навіть небажаною (it represents integration)

15. The situational model of translation

A model is a conventional representation of the translating process describing mental operations by which the ST or some part of it may be translated, irrespective of whether these operations are actually performed by the translator.

Translation models, can be oriented either toward the situation reflected in the ST or toward the meaningful components of the ST. Every translation model postulates the existence of some interlingual level of equivalence.

The situational (referential) model is based on the identity of the situations described in the original text and in the translation. The intermediate level is extralinguistic. The process of translating consists of two stages:

the break-through to the situation (the translator understands the actual situation
described in the ST);

the description of this situation in the TL (the translator says the same thing in the TL).

Wet paint - Обережно, пофарбовано.

Keep off the grass - По газонах не ходити

Make yourself a home - Почувайтеся як вдома

16. The semantic model of translation

A model is a conventional representation of the translating process describing mental operations by which the ST or some part of it may be translated, irrespective of whether these operations are actually performed by the translator.

Translation models, can be oriented either toward the situation reflected in the ST or toward the meaningful components of the ST. Every translation model postulates the existence of some interlingual level of equivalence.

The semantic model is based on the identity of basic notions in the SL and TL. The intermediate level is linguistic (semantic) The model postulates the existence of deep semantic categories common to the SL and the TL The process of translating consists of three stages:

the stage of analysis (the reduction of the original semantic units to the basic semantic categories within the SL);

the stage of translation proper (the replacement of the SL basic semantic categories with the equivalent basic semantic categories in the TL);

the stage of synthesis (the development of the TL basic semantic categories into the terminal notions in the TL).

1. студент -

а) чоловічої статі, а не жіночої (на відміну від студентка)

б) навчається, а не навчає (на відміну від викладач)

в) навчається у ВНЗ, а не в школі (на відміну від учень)

г) одна особа, а не множина (на відміну від студенти)

2. а) чоловічої статі, а не жіночої (на відміну від студентка) - a male

б) навчається, а не навчає (на відміну від викладач) - studies

в) навчається у ВНЗ, а не в школі (на відміну від учень) - goes to college or university

г) одна особа, а не множина (на відміну від студенти) - one person

3. a person, who is studying at a university or college - student

17. The transformational model of translation

A model is a conventional representation of the translating process describing mental operations by which the ST or some part of it may be translated, irrespective of whether these operations are actually performed by the translator.

Translation models, can be oriented either toward the situation reflected in the ST or toward the meaningful components of the ST. Every translation model postulates the existence of some interlingual level of equivalence.

The transformational model is based on the identity of nuclear structures in the SL and the TL The intermediate level is linguistic (structural). The model postulates the existence of nuclear structures common to the SL and the TL. The process of translating consists of three stages:

the stage of analysis (the transformation of the original structures into the nuclear structures within the SL);

the stage of translation proper (the replacement of the SL nuclear structures with the equivalent nuclear structures in the TL);

the stage of synthesis (the development of the TL nuclear structures into the terminal structures in the TL).

They heard a bomb explode. - A bomb exploded. They heard.

A bomb exploded - Бомба вибухнула. They heard - Вони почули.

Бомба вибухнула. Вони почули. - Вони почули, як вибухнула бомба. Вони почули вибух бомби.

18. ROMANIZATION OF THE UKRAINIAN ALPHABET

Romanization - is the representation of a word or language with Roman (Latin) alphabet or a system for doing so.

Romanization includes 2 methods: transcription and transliteration.

§ Transcription - is the substitution of sounds in the process of translation.

§ Transliteration - is the substitution of letters in the process of translation.

In most cases Romanization involves a compromise between transcription and transliteration.

There are 2 official systems of Romanization in Ukraine:

I. The Ukrainian National Transliteration System - was adopted by the Ukrainian Legal Terminology Commission on the 19th of April 1996.

This system is based on English orthography (only English letters) and is widely used to represent Ukrainian geographical names, which were romanized from Russian before Ukrainian independence in 1991.

Provisions:

1) The use of the approved system is binding for the transliteration of Ukrainian names into English in official and legislative acts.

2) This system itself is not mandatory for the transliteration of foreign names into Ukrainian (it has only one-way direction Ukr-Eng).

3) Transliteration must be performed directly between Ukrainian and English without the use of any intermediary languages

ex. Odessa (from Russian) - Odesa (from Ukrainian)

4) This system allows a number of simplifications:

§ softening and apostrophe marks (ь/') may be omitted in transliteration, except for ьо= `o / ьі= `i

§ Ukrainian letters which correspond to 2 Latin letters, if doubled in Ukrainian, may be transliterated as 1 Ukrainian letter

ex. Zaporizhzhya - Zaporizhya

5) The system includes a short list of official spellings:

Ukraine, Crimea (without the, not Ukrayina)

the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov

6) In certain cases, traditional forms may be given in parentheses () after the official variants:

ex. The traditional form Dnieper may be given after the official variant Dnipro: Dnipro (Dnieper)

Ukrainian letters	English letters	Notes	Examples
Г	H, Gh	H - in most cases, Gh - when recreating “г” in combination “зг”	згинути
Г	G
Е	E
Є	Ye, ie	Ye - at the beginning, ie - in other position	Yeltsin
Ж	Zh
З	Z
И	Y
І	I
Ї	Yi, i	Yi - at the beginning, i - in other position
Й	Y, i	Y - at the beginning, i - in other position
Х	Kh
Ц	Ts
Ч	Ch
Ш	Sh
Щ	Sch
Ь	'	may be omitted
Ю	Yu, iu	Yu - at the beginning, iu - in other position	Yushchenko
Я	Ya, ia	Ya - at the beginning, ia - in other position	Yanukovych
'	'	may be omitted

ROMANIZATION OF THE UKRAINIAN ALPHABET(2007)

II. The Ukrainian Official Transliteration System for Personal Names in Ukrainian Passports - was adopted by the Cabinet of Ministers in 2007 (on 26 of June?).

According to this system:

The Ukrainian letters Г and Г' are transliterated as G

Є - Ie (irrespective of the position) І - I Щ - Shch

Ю - Iu (irrespective of the position) Ї - I Ь - is not transliterated (ignored)

Я - Ia (irrespective of the position) Й - I ' - is not transliterated (ignored)

The current official system of transliteration was approved by the Cab. of Ministers on the 27th of January 2010. "The Decree on regulating the transliteration of the Ukr. alphabet with Latin letters" codifies the rules of te 1996 system with a few exceptions based on the 2007 system:

*щ - shch

*ь and ' are not transliterated

19. The translator's false friends

The TFF are lexical units (words, rarely word combinations), which have similar form, but different meaning the SL and in the TL. Their formal similarity is deceptive and may lead to translation mistakes.

Magazine - журнал, а не магазин

Replica - копія, але не репліка

Since such words can be found in a number of languages they are sometimes perceived as internationalisms, which is not true to fact, since they have different meaning. So these words are often referred to as pseudo-internationalisms. Yet pseudo-internationalisms can be viewed as a separate group of false friends since such word may occur in just two or three languages.

The TFF can be classified in two main groups:

1. The first group includes the word, which are similar in form, but completely different in meaning. Such words are never interchangeable.

Decade (10 років) - декада (10 днів)

Lunatic (crazy, mad) - лунатик (sleepwalker)

Aspirant (candidate) - аспірант (аспірант)

2. The second group includes words, which are similar in form and partially different in meaning. Such words are partially interchangeable (in some context)

Student - студент, учень

School - школа, університет

Oil - олія, нафта

Such words are not fully interchangeable due to a number of factors:

1. the semantic factor, which results from the difference of the historical development of such words in the SL and in the TL.

2. combinability factor results from the difference in a lexical combinability rules in the Sl and in the TL

defect - дефект, недоліки, прорахунки, помилки

The English word defect corresponds to the Ukrainian word дефект, but when used in the word combination defects of an election campaign it is likely to be translated as прорахунки, недоліки, помилки виборчої кампанії.

3. The pragmatic factor, which results from the difference in the background knowledge of the members of the SL and the TL communities.

The American Revolution - Війна за незалежність американських колоній

The emancipation proclamation - Декларація про скасування рабства

20. Translation of neologisms

Neologisms are new words or phrases that have been recently created. They may be new in form or meaning or in both form and meaning.

Taking into account various peculiarities of meaning and form of neologisms, several ways of conveying their meaning can be distinguished:

1) transcription / transliteration (if the meaning of these neologisms is already familiar to translation receptor and does not require any additional explanation);

metrosexnal (an urban male who spends a lot of time and money on his appearance and lifestyle) - метросексуал

retrosexual (a man who spends as little time and money as possible on his appearance and lifestyle) - ретросексуал

videophilia (a lifestyle focused on computers, video games and TV) - відеофілія

2) transcription/transliteration and description (when the neologism is introduced to the TL for the 1st time or it is not yet known to the general public, the explanation may be given either in the TT or in a footnote),

himbo (a man who is good-looking but unintelligent or superficial) --хімбо (чоловік, привабливий зовні, але інтелектуально нерозвинутий і досить поверховий)

3) description only (when transcription / transliteration is not helpful or could bring about unnecessary ambiguity);

leather spinster (a successful heterosexual woman who is happily unmarried) - успішна гетеросексуальна жінка, яка свідомо не прагне шлюбу)

hasbian (a former lesbian who is now in a heterosexual relationship) - колишня лесбіянка

4) word for word translation and additional explanation (description) (due to the complexity of meaning)

wallet biopsy (the determination of a person's financial status or health insurance coverage before admitting a person to a hospital or before performing an expensive procedure) - біопсія гаманця (з'ясування клініками фінансової спроможності хворого)

stepwife (the current wife of a woman's ex-husband or the ex-wife of a woman's current husband) - зведена дружина (теперішня дружина колишнього чоловіка або колишня дружина теперішнього чоловіка)

5) word for word translation (when the constituents have transparent lexical meaning);

ape diet (a vegetariani diet that emphasizes soy protein, fibers, nuts, and leafy green vegetables) мавпяча дієта

white food (sugar, flour, potatoes, rice, etc) - 6iла їжа

6) translation by means of semantic analogies (TL units analogous or similar in meaning).

furkid (a pet treated as though it were one's child) - домашній улюбленець

manny (a male nanny) - вусатий нянь

two commas (one million dollars) - мільйон баксів/доларів/лимон

21. TRANSLATION OF UNITS OF SPECIFIC NATIONAL LEXICON

Units of specific national lexicon - are words and phrases standing for (що означають) specific national phenomena, namely notions of material and spiritual life. They are: customs and traditions (Thanksgiving Day, Ivana Kupala), administrative and political systems (Verkhovna Rada, Congress, primaries), public bodies (назви партій), monetary systems (hryvnia, dollar), clothes (vyshyvanka), food (varenyky), drinks (Horilka), systems of weights and measures (English mile, Ukrainian verstva, pud), proper names (Klychko, Sergii) etc.

In the course of time such words may get the status of internationalisms, if they are important for communication (Coca-Cola, jeans, vodka, champagne, whisky, pizza).

Taking into account various peculiarities of meaning and form of units of specific national lexicon, several ways of conveying their meaning can be distinguished:

1. transcription/ transliteration (if the meaning of these units of specific national lexicon is already familiar to the translation receptor and does not require any additional explanation):

Lord - лорд

Гривня - Hryvnia

2. transcription/ transliteration and description (when the unit of specific national lexicon is introduced in the TL for the 1st time or it is not yet known to the general public; the explanation may be given either in the TT or in a footnote):

Tower of London - Лондонська фортеця Тауер

Хрещатик - Khreshchatyk (the main street of Kyiv)

вареники - varenyky (dumplings/ a traditional Ukrainian dish)

3. description only (when transcription/ transliteration is not helpful or could bring about unnecessary ambiguity (двозначність, неясність):

The Union Jack - державний прапор Великобританії

стати на рушник - to get married

4. word-for-word translation and additional explanation (description) (due to the complexity of meaning):

The Gulf War - війна у Перській затоці

5. word-for-word translation (when constituents have transparent lexical meaning):

стінгазета - wall newspaper

орден Ярослава Мудрого - Yaroslav the Wise Order

6. translation by means of semantic analogies (TL units analogous or similar in meaning):

Князь - prince, диплома робота - graduation essay/project

Mr - пан miss - панна

Mrs - пані ms /miz/ - звернення до жінки, не зважаючи на те чи має вона чоловіка

Ex. Wall Street - Волл-Стріт, Уолл-Стріт/-стріт

Threadneedle Street - Третнідл-стріт (вулиця банків)

The Diamond State - Діамантовий штат, штат Делавер

The Lone-Star State - штат самотньої зірки, штат Техас

The Depression - Велика депресія

22. TRANSLATION OF phraseological units (IDIOMS)

Phraseological units - are structurally, lexically and semantically stable language units (word-combinations or sentences), the meaning of which is not made up by the sum of meanings of their component parts. Ph. units can't be freely made up in speech but they are reproduced as ready-made units.

Taking into account various peculiarities of meaning and form of ph.units, several ways of rendering their meaning can be distinguished:

1. By choosing absolute or complete equivalents

This is the method of translating when every component of the SL idiom is retained unchanged in the TL. This method works when an idiom originates from Greek or other mythology (Augean stables - авгієві стайні, Pandora's box - скринька пандори), ancient history or literature (to cross the Rubicon - перейти Рубікон), the Holy Scripture (a lost sheep - заблудла вівця), literary or historical sources (the fifth column - п'ята колона) or any other language (Eng. time is money - час-гроші, Fr. after us the deluge - після нас хоч потоп), also some expressions belonging to English and American writers and politicians (the cold war - холодна війна, iron curtain - залізна завіса)

2. Translation of idioms by choosing near equivalents

A considerable number of ph.units originating in the SL and the TL from a common source may have one or more of their components different.

Ex. baker's dozen - чортова дюжина

as pale as paper - блідий як стіна

love is the mother of love - любов породжує любов

measure twice, cut once - сім раз одміряй, один раз одріж

3. Translation by choosing (genuine idiomatic) analogies

A number of SL ph.units have idiomatic analogies in the TL. As a rule these ph.units are based on different images and may have quite different structures. Nevertheless such units are very close in their meaning and may be used interchangeably in the process of translation. Usually these are proverbs and sayings. A number of such ph.units may have several/ two or more analogies in the TL.

Ex. like mistress, like maid - яблуко від яблуні недалеко падає

don't teach your grandmother to suck eggs - не вчи вченого, не вчи рибу плавати, яйця курку не вчать

4. Translating idioms by choosing approximate analogies