The borrowings in English language

II. The usage of borrowing at practice

2.1 The card index of Greek borrowings

In the order to examine the words in `God save the Queen', an etymological dictionary will be needed. Such a dictionary does not explain what a certain word means, but instead it gives information on what the word meant years ago, where its origin lies and how it came into the language. I will not focus on the semantic change of the words, and neither will look at where a word originally comes from andtherefore not trace the word back to its ultimate origin. I will focus on finding out which words are borrowings and which languages the words to English. For this paper I will be using the Online Etymology Dictioonary.

I began the analysis by categorizing the words in their word classes. Grammarians and linguists are not in agreement on how many word classes there are, and how words are supposed to be classeified. Some believe that there are only seven word classes while others suggest as many as twenty. For this, I have decided to to choose a categorization that only has eight word classes in order to simplify the analysis. These major word classes are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, articles, and interjections. As an example I want to take the British national anthem `God Save the Queen'. Someday people might be singing `God save the King' instead of `God save Queen' When they sing their national anthem. When the British monarch is male the word `Queen' is namely exchanged for ` King', so that the song corresponds to the monarchal situation . It is unknown who the composer or author of the national anthem is. Today, however, approximately 200 years after the song became the national anthem, the composerand author are still unidentified.

`God Save the Queen' is one of the first songs to be used as a national anthem. In the beginning of the 19th century, when the song became Great Britain's national anthem, it was uncommon for countries to have national anthems, which they used for nationalistic purposes[35, 22-23].

The song was first publicly sung in a theatre in 1745 when the band leader decided toplay it after hearing that Prince Charles Edward Stuart had defeated the army of King II at Prestonpans, near Edinburgh. At this time the song was not the official national anthem, but the audience liked the performance so much, and the song became such a success, that it became normal to play the song whenever monarchs were present. Today there is no authorized version of the song, ` as the second verse of the song are sung, but the national anthem actually does consist of five verses. These have been added to the song are sung, but the national anthem actually does consist of five verses. These have been added to the original first two verses over the years, and are not as famous as the first ones. Since they are not sung very often. For this essay, however, all verses will be analyzed, in order to have as words as possible for the investigation and to make the result as precise and reliable as possible.

God Save the Queen

God save our gracious Queen,

Longliveour noble Queen,

God save the Queen!

Send her victorious

Happy and Glorious

Long t reign over us

God save the Queen!

O Lord our God arise,

Scatter her enemies

And make the fall;

Confound their politics,

Frustrate their knavish tricks,

On Thee our hhopes we fix,

Oh, save us all!

Thy choicest gifts in store

On her be pleased to pour;

Long may she reign;

May she defend our laws

And ever give us cause

To sing with heart and voice,

God save the Queen!

Not in this land alone,

But be God's mercies known,

From sore to shore!

Lord make the nations see,

That men should brothers be,

And form one family,

The wide world over

From every latent foe,

From the assassins blow,

God save the Queen!

O'er her thine arm extend,

For Britain's sake defend,

Our mother, prince, and friend,

God save the queen![36,98-101] (see Appendix 3).

Results and discussion of the anthem. `God Save the Queen' consist of 92 different words. Of the 92 words, 29 belong to the group of nouns. 24 words are verbs and 17 are adjectives. Five words are adverbs, six are prepositions and three conjunctions. Six pronouns were found and one definite article and one interjection. The 92 words were then analyzed regarding their origin. The outcome was approximately that what I had expected. 57 words, which accounts to 62% of all investigated words were of Old English origin. 22 words or 24% of the words were Old French loanwords. 5.4% or five of the 92 words were loanwords from Old Norse, while 2.2% or two words were of Anglo-French origin. 4.4% of allwords or four words had been borrowed from Latin directly, and1% had been borrowed from Widdle German. One word, or !% of all investigated words was of unknown origin.

Borrowings in `God saves the Queen'

Old English62%

Old French 24%

Old Norse 5.4%

Latin4.4%

Anglo French 2.2%

Middle German1%

Unknown origin 1%(see Appendix 4)

When one examines the 57 native English words, one realizes that many of these words are fundamental and basic words in the English vocabulary. Verbs that describe very basic human actions are found in this group. Examples are the verbs `live', `send', `see', 'give' and `sing'. Among these words are also the two auxiliary verbs `may' and `should'. One could draw the conclusion that words like these do not normally get borrowed from other languages, since they account for the most elementary and primary vocabulary ought to have in order to be labeled as a language. Therefore, the Anglo-Saxons did not borrow these words from the Romans, Normans or the other people they came in contact with, since they already existed in their vocabulary.

Not only verbs, but also nouns and pronouns that fundamental objects, people or ideas can be found in the group of native English words. “brothers”, “world”,”men” and “arm” are examoles of such words. These are words that are so basic that all human languages have them as part of their vocabulary. Obviously, all human beings in the world have families and body parts and need the respective terms.

All pronouns, except for one, that were found among the 92 words were of Old English origin. “her”,”us”, “thee” and “she” are native words, and these words are also typical main words in a language.

All three conjunctions that found are also Old English origin. These words are needed in a language to explain relations between sentences, and in order to make the language logical. The fact that these words are native words is not surprising, since Old English also needed conjunctions to make it a structured language.

The six prepositions that were found are also native English words. These words are also needed in a language in order for it to be logical and complete, since prepositions, just as conjunctions, describes the relationship between words. The Anglo-Saxons did not borrow such words, since they already had them, but also because grammatical words like these normally do not carry any prestige and are therefore not borrowed. Only if a word from another language is more prestigious or has a connotation that the native word lacks, would it be meaningful to borrow a word. A further distinction with the words that are of Old English origin is that is they are fairy short. Most of them only have between three and five letters. While many of the loanwords have more. Native English words often only have one syllable, while many of the other words consist of more. Only seven of the 57 native words have obviously been a part of the language the longest, and have therefore had the most time to be changed and simplified (see Appendix 5).

Many of the words that were examined were loanwords from Old French. 24% of all words were borrowed fromthis language. It is important to remember that most of these words are originally of Latin origin. More than 90% of all Old French words came from Vulgar Latin. These French loanwords are verbs, adjectives and nouns. Not one single preposition,conjunction, pronoun, definite article or interjection was borrowed from French. This confirms, once again, the statement put forward in the theoretical part; grammatical words or function words are normally not borrowed.

All verbs that were found in this group are weak verbs. “save” and “fix” are two such examples. The strong verbs in English are most always of proto Germanic origin, and are therefore native words. When one examines German, English and Swedish strong verbs, for example, it is possible to see that they all derive from the same source, due to their resemblance.

Many of the adjectives that are of Old French origin have the ending “ous”, as in the words “gracious”, “various” and “glorious”. Here we can easily identify that these words are of Romance origin, since the suffix “ous” is originally from Latin. Almost all the 92 words that are connected to the fields of politics are French loanwords. Such examples are the words “reign”, “enemies”, “nations”, “defend”, “prince” and the word “politics” itself. Only the word “queen” is a native Anglo-Saxon word. All these “political” French loanwords were borrowed in the 13th and 14th Century, when Norman French was the administrative language on the British Isles. These words show us that French was the language that was the language that spoken in the field of politics.

One remarkable thing is that the name “Britain” is also a loanwords from Old French. It was borrowed in the end of the 13th century, in a time when many French language in the 13th and 14th century, which makes them loanwords were adopted. Most of the Old French borrowings entered the English language in the 13th 14th century, which makes them loanwords from the third Romance period. Only the words “politics” and “assassins” are from the Modern Period, and it is unknown when the word “gracious” was adopted.

These words show us that English borrowed an enormous amount of words from French during this period, and that the words come from different aspects of society. “Voice”, “tricks” and “pour” are three more examples of words that were borrowed during this periods.

English has a large amount of lexica, in comparison to many other languages. This can be explained with the fact that English has borrowed a great deal of words from other languages and simultaneously kept the native vocabulary. This is a major reason why English has so many synonyms that only have small differences in connotation.

Only two words were found that had once been borrowed directly from Norman French or Anglo French; “confound” and “extend”. This was rather surprising, considering the vast amount borrowings there is in English from this French dialect. One possible examination for this is the classification system used in etymological works. The Etymology dictionary most likely states that a word is an Old French borrowing when a word is identical in Norman French and Old French. Only when a word is distinctively Norman French does the dictionary label it as such. For example, uses the term Old French when dialects Norman French and Central French are “not tangibly distinguished”.

Altogether , the French loanwords made up 26,2%, which means that slightly more than one out of four words was of French origin. This is a rather large percentage, in comparison to how many French loanwords were found in Shakespeare's works. This could be explained with the fact that “God Save the Queen” is a political anthem, and therefore many of the words are in one way or the other connected to politics. As we saw in the theoretical part, politics is one of those fields, in which a great deal of words was borrowed during the third Roman period, so this has probably played a role in the outcome of the analysis.

Five words were found that were borrowed from Old Norse. “Happy”, “them”, “gifts”, “laws” and “their” all have their origin in the North Germanic language. The fact that the pronoun “them” managed to enter the English language shows us the influence that Old Norse must have had on English. It is unusual that pronouns and grammatical words are borrowed, and only when the “lending” language community was powerful and there was much contact between the groups could this be possible [37, 487-489]. The fact that Old Norse and Old English were fairy similar languages is also a reason for the large amount of borrowings from Old Norse. The languages, most likely, mixed into each other and this made it easier to borrow loanwords. The five words that were borrowed from Old Norse entered the English language approximately 200 to 400 years after the first Scandinavian settlements in Great Britain in the 10th century. This gives us a picture of how long time it may take before words are adapted from one language to another. Of the five native Old Norse words, two are adjectives, two are nouns and one is a pronoun (see Appendix 3).

The word “law” also revels to us in what fields the Scandinavians were powerful. The word “gift” which is also an Old Norse borrowing and therefore also of Germanic origin exists beside its synonym “present” in the English vocabulary today. This word, on the other hand, is of Romance origin, and was borrowed from Old French around 1225 A.D. This is one example of two synonyms in English that have both been borrowed, and that do not have a native equivalent.

Four Latin loanwords were found among the 92 examined words. “Frustrate”, “cause”, “family”, and “latent”. All the Latin words that were found were adopted between the 13th century and the 15th century. These words were borrowed during a period when the English adopted a considerable amount of Latin words. People were reading a lot of literature in Latin, and a reason for this could be that William Caxton had recently brought the book printing to England, which made the books a lot cheaper and more available to more people.

A further reason is that the Renaissance and the interest in classical texts had just begun in Europe.

Greek was also a language of learning, and Latin itself borrowed words from Greek. Indeed the Latin alphabet is an adaptation of the Greek alphabet. Many of the Greek loanwords were through other languages: through French - agony, aristocracy, enthusiasm, metaphor; through Latin - ambrosia, nectar, phenomenon, rhapsody. There were some general vocabulary items like fantasy, cathedral, charismatic, idiosyncrasy as well as more technical vocabulary like anatomy, barometer, microscope, homoeopathy.

During the Renaissance and after, there were modern coinages from Greek elements (rather than borrowings). For example, photo-yielded photograph, photogenic, photolysis and photo kinesis; bio-yielded biology, biogenesis, biometry, bioscope; tele-yielded telephone, telegraphic, telescopic. Other Greek elements used to coin new words include crypto-, hyper-, hypo-, neo- and stereo-.

Philosophy, psychology, geography, aesthetics, economics, politics, logic, physics, democracy, history, catastrophe, catalyst, genetics. Words of Greek origin in English are ubiquitous and well documenered, though many of them entered English through Latin rather than directly from Greek: the Roman conquest of Britain not only brought Latin but many Latin words of Greek origin; the Renaissance ( the rediscovery of classical ideas) was another great wave of borrowing from Latin and Greek into English, evidence of which we see in the works of Shakespeare and his contemporaries, in spite of the bard's small Latin and less Greek's; the Industrial Revolution, with its countless discoveries and inventions, and the problem of what what to call them, was another period rich in new additions of Greek words into English. Finally, in our own time, the revolution in information technology and advanced in genetics and biochemistry have spawned many more “English” words of Greek origin [38,89-100].

A mixed blessing. From the perspective of the Greek learner of English, all this borrowing may be mixed blessing. Many new words are invented in modern Greek or mean nothing at all. From the field of language study, we have anaphora (which, in Greek, means “report” or “reference” but in English is a way of referring back to something already mentioned in the text), cataphora (which sounds like “flagrant” to a modern Greek ear, is a way of referring fowaward to something not mentioned in the text yet), hyponymy, exophoric, metonymy and acronym which sound like nothing at all to the Greek in the rhetorical effects of prose and poetry.

2.2 The card-index of Latin Borrowings

Latin, being the language of the Roman Empire, had already influenced the language of the Germanic tribes even before they set foot in Britain. Latin loanwords reflected the superior material culture of the Roman Empire, which had spread across Europe: street, wall, candle, chalk, inch, pound, port, camp.

Latin was also the language of Christianity, and St. Augustine arrived in Britain in A.D 597 to christianise the nation. Terms in religion were borrowed: pope, bishop, monk, nun, cleric, demon, disciple, mass, priest, shrine. Christianity also brought with it learning: circul, not (note), paper, scol (school), epistol.

Many Latin borrowings came in the early MnE period. Sometimes, it is difficult to say whether the loanwords were direct borrowings from Latin or had come in through French (because, after all, Latin was also the language of learning among the French). One great motivation for the borrowings was the change in social order, where scientific and philosophical empiricism was the beginning to be valued. Many of the new words are academic in nature therefore: affidavit, apparatus, caveat, corpuscle, compendium, equilibrium, equinox, formula, inertia, incubate, momentum, molecule, pendulum, premium, stimulus, subtract, vaccinate, vacuum. This resulted in the distinction between learned and popular vocabulary in English.

The Roman conquest and Latin borrowings.

In 55 B.C. the Romans under Julius Caesar first landed in Britain. This first appearance of the Romans had no further consequences: after a brief stay the Romans went back to Gaul. In the year 54 Caesar landed in Britain for a second time, he routed the Britons and advanced as far as the Thames. But this stay was also a short one.

Permanent conquest of Britain began in 43 A.D., under the emperor Claudius. The Romans subdued the Britons, and colonized the colonized the country, establishing a great number of military camps, which eventually developed into English cities. About 80 A.D., under the emperor Domitian, the Romans occupied the territory including the modern cities of Edinburgh and Glasgow [39, 236-251].

In this period Britain became a Roman province and that lasted for almost 4 centuries. This colonization had a profound effect on the country (though not as profound as in Gaul). Roman civilization - paved roads, powerful walls of military camps- completely transformed the aspect of the country.

The Latin language superseded the Celtic dialects in townships and probably also spread over the country-side. In the 4th century , when Christianity was introduced in the Roman Empire, it also spread among the Britons.

The Latin language exerted considerable influence on different aspects of English: the OE alphabet, the growth of writing and literature.

Early OE borrowings from Latin indicate the new things and concepts, which pertained to war, trade, agriculture, building and home life.

Words connected with trade indicate general concepts, units of measurements and articles of trade unknown to the Teutons before they came into contact with Rome: OE ceapian, clip, ceapman and mansion , man re (`to trade', `deal', `trader', ` to trade', trading', `trader') came from the Latin names for `merchant' - caupo and mango. Evidently, the words were soon assimilated by the language as they yielded many derivates.

Units of measurement and containers were adopted with their Latin names: OE pund (NE pound), OE ynce (NE inch) from Latin pondo and unica, OE mynet, OE falsce, ciest (NE flask, chest).

The following words denote articles of trade and agricultural products introduced by the Romans: OE win (from Latin vinum), OE butere from Latin butyrum), OE plume (from Latin prunus), OE ciese (Lat.caseus), OE pipor (from Lat.piper), (NE wine, butter, plum, cheese, pepper).

Roman contribution to building can be perceived in works like OE coper (NE chalk, tile, copper). A group of words relating to domestic life exemplified by OE cytel, disc, cuppe, pyle (NE kettle, dish, cup, pillow), etc.

Borrowings pertaining to military affairs are OE mil (NE mile) from Latin millia passuum, which meant a thousand steps made to measure the distance; OE weall (NE wall) from Latin vallum, a wall of fortifications erected in the Roman provinces; OE street from Latin strata via, - a “paved road” were laid to connect Roman military camps and colonies in Britain; the meaning of the word changed when house began to be built along these roads, hence NE street.

Among the Latin loanords adopted in Britain were some place - names or components of place - names used by the Celts. Latin castra in the shape caster, ceaster `camp' formed OE place - names which survive today as Chester, Dorchester, Lancaster and the like (some of them with the first element coming from Celtic); Lat. Colonia `settlement for retired soldiers' is found in Colchester and in the Latin hybrid Lincoln', Lat. Vicus `village' appearsin Norwich, Woolwich, Lat. Portus-in Bridport and Devonport. Place-names made of Latin and Germanic components are: Portsmouth, Greenport, Greenwich and many others.

The third period of Latin influence on the OE vocabulary began with the introduction of Christianity in the late 6th c. and lasted to the end of OE. Numerous Latin words which found their way into the English language during these 500 years fall into main groups:

-words pertaining to religion;

-words connected with learning;

The rest miscellaneous words denoting various objects and conceptions, which require new the English learned form Latin books and from closer acquaintance with Roman culture. The total number of Latin loan-words in OE exceeds 500 years, this third layer accounting for over four hundred words.

The new religion introduced a large number of new conceptions, which require new names; most ofthem wereadopted from Latin, some of the words go back to Greek prototypes:

OE	NE	From Latin	From Greek
Apostol	Apostle	Apostolus	Apostolus
Antefn	Anthem	Antiphona	Antiphona
Biscop	Bishop	Episcopus	Episcopos
Candel	Candle	Candela	-
Cleric	Clerk	Clericus	klericos

To this list we add many more modern English words from the same source: abbot, alms, altar, ark, angel, creed, disciple, hymn, idol, martyr, noon, nun, organ, palm, pine (tormet), pope, prophet, psalter, shrine, relic, rule, temple and others.

After the introduction of Christianity many schools were up in Britain. The spread of education led to the wider use of Latin: teaching ws conducted in Latin, or consisted of learning /latin texts. These conditions are reflected in a large number of borrowings connected with educations and words of more academic, `bookish' character. Unlike the earlier borrowings scholarly words were largely adopted through books; they were first in OE translations from Latin. Other modern descendants of this group are: accent, grammar, meter, gloss, notary and decline.

A great variety of miscellaneous borrowings came from Latin probably because they indicated new objects and new ideas, introduced together with their Latin names by those who had a fair command of Latin: monks, priests, school-masters. They belong to different semantic spheres: names of trees and plants - elm, lily, plant, pine; names of illnesses and words pertaining to medical treatment - cancer, fever, paralysis, plaster; names of animals - camel, elephant, tiger; names of clothes and household articles - cap, mat, sack, sock; names of foods - beet, caul, oyster, radish; miscellaneous words - crisp, fan, place, spend, turn.

2.3 The card-index of French borrowings

Along with the other major languages of Western Europe, both English and French are descendants of proto-Indo-European. English is a Teutonic language, derivative of proto-Germanic (along with Dutch, Yiddish and German); French is a Romance language, derivative of proto-Italic via Latin (along with Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan and Romanian). Though French and English are long-since separated on the Indo-European genealogy, the complex history of English and the role French plays in this chronicle create a few interesting issues in French-English translation. Great number of words of French origin have entered the English language to the extent that around 30% of its vocabulary is of French origin. It is via French that many Latin words have come to English Language. [40, 54-58]. Most of the French vocabulary now appearing in English was imported over the centuries following the Norman Conquest f 1066, when England came under the administration of Norman-speaking people. According to different sources, between one third and two thirds of all English words have French origin.

For example, in a card-index I used such words as abbreviation, absolute, academic, acrobat, activity, adore, attack, baggage, blanket, car, card, chemist, damage, energy, equality, globe, harlequin, jack, kiosk, kilogram, labour, liberty, madam, mail, marriage, number, nun, opposition, part and so on.

Conclusion

Borrowings words from other languages is characteristic of English throughout its history. More than two thirds of the English vocabulary are borrowings. Mostly they are words of Romanic origin (Latin, French, Italian, Spanish). Borrowed words are different from native ones by their phonetic structure, by their morphological structure and also by their grammatical forms. It is also characteristic of borrowings to be non-motivated semantically.

It is evident that English history is very rich in different types of contacts with other countries, that's why it is very rich in borrowings. The Roman invasion, the adoption of Christianity, Scandinavian and Norman conquests of the British Isles, the development of British colonialism and trade cultural relations served to increase immensely the English vocabulary. The majority of these borrowings is fully assimilated in English in their pronunciation, grammar, spelling and can be hardly distinguished from native words.

English continues to take in foreign words, but now the quantity of borrowings is not so abundant as it was before. All the more so, English now has become a “giving” language; it has become Lingua Franca of the twentieth century.

Thus, borrowings are classified according to different criteria:

a)according to the aspect which is borrowed; b)according to the degree of assimilation; c) according to the language from which the word was borrowed.

In this classification only the main languages from which words were borrowed into English were described, such as Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, German and Russian. As we mentioned above, etymologically the vocabulary of the English language consists of two groups - the native words and the borrowed words. The etymological linguistic analysis showed that the borrowed stock of words is larger than the native stock of words. To the native words, we include words from Common Germanic language and from Indo-European stock. Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages. Many linguists consider foreign influence plays the most important role in the history of the English language. But the grammar and phonetic system are very stable (unchangeable ) and are not often influenced by other languages. Besides when we speak about the role of native and borrowed words in the English language we must not take into consideration only the number of them gut their semantic, stylistic character, their word-building ability, frequency value, collocability (valency) and the productivity of their word-building patterns. If we approach to the study of the role of native and borrowed words from this point of view we see, though the native words are not numerous they play an important role in the English language. They have high frequency value, great word-forming power, wide collocability, many meanings and they are stylistically neutral. Almost all words of native origin belong to very important semantic groups.

They include most of the auxiliary and model verbs: shall, will, should, must, can, may; pronouns: I, he, she, my, your, his, who, whose; prepositions: in, on, out, under, for, of; numerals: one, two, three, four, five, six etc; conjunctions: and, but, till, as etc.; words denoting parts of body: hand, head etc; members of a family: father, mother, brother; natural phenomena and planets: snow, rain, wind, sun, moon; animals: horse, cow, sheep, cat; common actions: do, make, go, come, hear, see, eat, speak, talk etc. All these words are very frequent words, we use them every day in our speech. Many words of native origin possess large clusters of derived and compound words in the present-day language. Eg.: help-helper, helpful, helpfully, helpfulness, helping, helpingly, helpable, helped, unhelpable etc.

Such affixes of native origin as -er, -ness, -ish, -ed, un-, mis-, -dom, -hood, -ly, -over, -out, -under are of native origin.

We see that the role of native words in the language is great. Borrowed words have been called “the milestones of philology”, because they permit us to fix approximative the dates of linguistic changes. They show us the course of civilization and give us information of the nations”.

When in two languages we find no trace of the exchange of loanwords one way or the other, we are safe to infer that the two nations have had nothing to do with each other, but if they have been in contact, the number of the loanwords and still more the quality of the loanwords, if rightly interpreted, will inform us of their reciprocal relations, they will show us which of them has been the more fertile in ideas and on what domains of human activity each has been superior of the other. If all other sources of information were closed to us except such loanwords in our modern North-European languages as “piano”, “soprano”, “opera”, “libretto”, “tempo”, “adagio” etc, we should still have no hesitation in drawing the conclusion that Italian music has played a great role all over Europe.

Borrowed words enter the language as a result of influence of two main causes or factors; linguistic and extra-linguistic. Economic, cultural, industrial, political relations of speakers of the language with other countries refer to extra-linguistic factors. The historical development of England also influenced the language.

Let us first take examples of native words replaced by French words; it is possible to compile a very long list, so here we must confine ourselves to a few, merely by way of illustration `cynecic” was replaced by “royal”, “cynestol” by “throne”, “cynehelm” by “crown”, “dema” by “judge”, “firen” by “crime”, “rithoew” by “justice”, “suach” by “such”. Much of the loss of Old English vocabulary can be accounted for by the influx of French words for the same or a similar idea in the Middle English period.

Thus, due to the language of the Roman civilization Latin was for a long time used in England as the language of learning and religion. Old Norse of the Scandinavian tribes was the language of the conquerors (9-10-11 centuries). French (Norman dialect) was the language of the other conquerors who brought with them a lot of new notions of a higher social system, developed feudalism. It was the language of upper classes, of official documents and school (11-14cent). These factors are extra-linguistic ones. The absence of equivalent words in the language to express new subjects or phenomena makes people to borrow words. Eg.the words football, volleyball, michman in Russian; to economize the linguistic means, i.e. to use a foreign word instead of long native expressions and others are called linguistic causes.

The closer the two interacting languages are in structure the easier it is for words of one language to penetrate into the other. The fact that Scandinavian borrowings have penetrated into such grammatical classes as prepositions and pronouns (they, them, their, both, same, till) can only be attributed to a similarity in the structure of the two languages. Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral speech (by immediate contact between the people) and through written speech (by indirect contact through books). Words borrowed orally (inch, mill, street, map) are usually short and they undergo more changes in the act of adopter. Written borrowings (communique, belles-lettres, naivete, psychology, pagoda etc) are often rather long and they are unknown to many people, speaking English.

We would like to conclude our investigation with proposal to study Kazakh, Russian and English borrowing thoroughly, because most of our students are able to compare these language and find similarities and differences.

The results confirm that English is a very open language with regards to its acceptance to adopt foreign words into its vocabulary. There has been little resistance against loanwords in Great Britain in comparison to many other European countries. In Great Britain, purist groups, whose ultimate goal is to make a language free of foreign influences, were never as successful as in Germany for example. As a consequence, the English have borrowed words from all kinds of people that they have come in contact with over the years. The Romance languages have had the longest and deepest impact on the English language and both Latin and French have played a major role in “lending” words to English.

The people that spoke these Romance languages were not only powerful people abroad, but many of them also lived in the British Isles. There was, in other words, direct contact between the English and the people from whom they borrowed lexica, and this direct contact, which was also of long duration, resulted in this vast borrowing. Great Britain's history is hence a major reason why a large amount of English words are of foreign origin.

The words in “God Save the Queen” proved not to be any different than the words in general in English vocabulary. Many of them had once been borrowed from other languages, but the majority was native English words. The results coincide with the percentages shown in the practical part of my work. There we could see that linguists come to the conclusion that the majority of words in a dictionary are of foreign origin. When the most commonly used words are analyzed, however, we saw that most of them were native English words. The words in “God Save the Queen” are all fairly common words, and therefore the majority was of Anglo-Saxon origin.

As a result of my work, card-index of borrowings in Latin, Greek and French languages was made up. It proves that linguistic borrowing is an old way of acquiring new vocabulary, and not a new phenomenon of our globalized world. People of different cultures have always indicated with each other, and there has always been an exchange of lexica due to this interaction. Loanwords enrich a language, since the vocabulary gets larger and each word therefore acquires a more specific and subtle meaning and this should be kept in mind before one simply criticizes and dismisses borrowings.

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5. Grega, Jaochim, `Borrowing as a Word-Finding Process in Cognitive Historical Onomasiology',-p242.

6. Donald Winford, An Introduction to contact Linguistics,-p458

7. Àíòðóøèíà Ã.Á., Àôàíàñüåâà Î.Â., Ìîðîçîâà Í.Í.,- Ëåêñèêîëîãèÿ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. English Lexicology. -M., 2001. (44-78)

8. Àðíîëüä È.Â.- Ëåêñèêîëîãèÿ ñîâðåìåííîãî àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà-Ì., 1959.

9. Uriel Weinreich, Language in contact, Mouton 1963,-p458

10. Äóáåíåö Ý.Ì., Modern English Lexicology. Theory and Practice.-M.-2002(98-122)

11. Arnold I.V.,-The English word.-M.,1986(252-259).

12. Anthony Stanforth W., 2002:'Effects of language contacton the vocabulary: an overview'. Berlin/ New York, 2002-p966.

13. Sarah Thomson, Terrence Kaufman, Language Contact. Creolization and Btyson, Genetic Linguistics. 1988,-p578

14. Àðáåêîâà Ò.È Ëåêñèêîëîãèÿ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà, Ì., «Âûñøàÿ øêîëà», 1977,

15. Rayevskaya N.M. English lexicoclogy. Kiev, 1957,-p.266

16. Ñìèðèíöêèé À.È. Ëåêñèêîëîãèÿ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. Ì., 1956, -253ñ.

17. The mother tongue: English and how It Got That Way. New York: Avon, 1990,-p.602

18. W.F.Bolton and Crystal, `The English Language',-p.146

19. Àðàêèí Â.Ä Èñòîðèÿ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà, Ì.:Ïðîñâåùåíèå1985, 253ñ

20. McCrum, Robert, William Cran, and Robert MacNeil. The story of English. New York: Elizabeth Sifton, 1986,-p.346

21. Lockwood, W.B. “An informal Introduction to English Etimology”. London: Minerva Press, 1999, - p.488

22. Cannon, Garland “Problems in studying loans”, Proceedings of the annual meeting of the Berkley Linguistics Society 25, 1999, -p.386

23. Haugen, Einar “The analysis of linguistic borrowing”, 1950, -.254

24. Reznik R.V., Sorokina T. A., Reznik I.V., A History of the English Landuage. Moscow: Nauka, 2001, -p496

25. Bailey R.W. Images of English: A Cultural History of the Language. Cambridge, 1992, -p306

26. Koch, Peter “Lexical Typology from a Cognitive and Linguistic Point of View”. New York, 2002, -p524

27. Breeze, Andrew. “Old English Ealfara, “Pack-Horse”: A Scandinavian-ArabicLoanword” March, 1991, -p.136

28. Meisami, Julie Scott. “Arabic Culture and Medieval European Literature” Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1991, -p.564

29. J. Chauser. “The book of the Duchess”, -p.856

30. Lasater , Alice E. Spain to England: A Comparative Study of Arabic, European and English Literature of the Middle Ages. University Press of Mississipi, 1974, -p.578

31. Maleska E.T. “A Pleasure in Words”. London, 1983, -p224

32. Murray, J.A.H. British Patriotic Songs, -p.58

33. Charles E.S. National Anthem, 1745, -p.140

34. Spreake J. “The Oxford Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases”. Oxford, 2000, -p.608

35. Adams V. An Introduction to Modern English Word-formation. London, 1973, -p230

36. Serjeantson, Mary S. A History of Foreign Words in English. London, 1935, p.432

37. Deutschmann, M. “How French has influenced English”, -p.98

38. http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/JohnnyLing.shtml(history)

39. Ginzburg R.S., Khidekel S.S., Knyazeva G.Y., Sankin A.A-A Course in Modern English Lexicology.-M., 1979 (164-193)

40. Õèäåêåëü Ñ.Ñ, Ãèíçáóðã Ð.Ç., Êíÿçåâà Ã.Þ., Ñàíêèí À.À.,-Reading in Modern English lexicology.-M.,(172-193)

41. Kashcheyeva M.A., Potapova J.A., Tyurina N.S.,- Practical Lexicology.-L-1974

Appendix 1

The Etymological Structure of English Vocabulary

The native element	The borrowed element
Indo-European element	Celtic (5th - 6th c. A.D.)
Germanic element	Latin 1st group: 1st c. B.C. 2nd group: 7th c. A.D. 3rd group: the Renaissance period
English Proper element (no earlier than 5th c. A.D.)	Scandinavian (8th - 11th c. A.D) French 1. Norman borrowings: 11th - 13th c. A.D. 2. Parisian borrowings (Renaissance) 3. Greek (Renaissance) 4. Italian (Renaissance and later) 5. Spanish (Renaissance and later) 6. German, Indian, Russian and some other groups

Appendix 2

Borrowings can the aspect classified according to different criteria

According to the aspect which is borrowed

Phonetic borrowings

Translation loans

Semantic borrowings

Morphemic borrowings

According to the degree of assimilation

Completely assimilated

Partly assimilated

Borrowings non - assimilated semantically

Borrowings non - assimilated grammatically

Borrowings non - assimilated phonetically

Borrowings can be partly assimilated graphically

Non - assimilated

Appendix 3

God Save the Queen

God save our gracious Queen,

Long live our noble Queen,

God save the Queen!

Send her victorious,

Happy and Glorious,

Long to reign over us;

God save the Queen!

O Lord our God arise,

Scatter her enemies

And make them fall;

Confound their politics,

Frustrate their knavish tricks,

On Thee our hopes we fix,

Oh, save us all!

Thy choicest gifts in store

On her be pleased to pour;

Long may she reign;

May she defend our laws,

And ever give us cause

To sing with heart and voice,

God save the Queen!

Not in this land alone,

But be God's mercies known,

From shore to shore!

Lord make the nations see,

That men should brothers be,

And form one family,

The wide world over

From every latent foe,

From the assassins blow,

God save the Queen!

O'er her thine arm extend,

For Britain's sake defend,

Our mother, prince and friend,

God save the Queen!

Appendix 4

Borrowings in “God Save the Queen”.

Old English 62%

Old English 24%

Old Norse 5,4%

Latin 4,4%

Anglo French 2,2 %

Middle German 1%

Unknown origin 1%

Appendix 5 (a)

92 Words from “God save the Queen”

GOD---Noun O.E

SAVE---Verb. Old French

OUR---adjective-Old English

GRACIOUS-(GRACE)---Adjective. Old French

QUEEN-Noun. Old English

LONG--Adjective. Old English

LIVE--Verb. Old French

NOBLE--Adjective. Old French

THE-Definite Article-Old English

SEND--Verb. Old English

HER--Pronoun Old French

VICTORIOUS(victory)--- Adjective Old French

HAPPY--adjective. Old Norse

AND--Conjunction. Old French

GLORIOUS--adjective

TO-Preposition. Old English

REIGN-Verb. Old English

OVER--adverb. Old English

US-pronoun-Old English

O(oh)- Interjection. Origin unknown

LORD--Noun. Old English

ARISE--Verb. Old English

SCATTER--Verb. Middle English

ENEMIES--Noun Old French

MAKE--Verb. Old English

THEM-pronoun, Old Norse

FALL--Verb. Old English

CONFOUND--Verb. Anglo-French

THEIR--Adjective. Old Norse

POLITICS--Noun. Middle English

FRUSTRATE--verb. Latin

KNAVISH--Adjective. Middle English

TRICKS--Noun old French

ON--Preposition. Old English

THEE--Pronoun Old French

HOPES--Noun. Old French

WE--Pronoun. Old English

FIX--Verb, Old French

ALL--Adverb. Old French

THY--Adjective. Old English

CHOICEST--Adjective. Old French

GIFTS--Noun. Old Norse

IN--Preposition. Old English

STORE--Noun. Old French

BE-Verb. Old English

PLEASED--Verb. Old French

POUR--verb. Old French

MAY--verb, Old French

SHE--pronoun. Old French

DEFEND--verb, Old French

LAWS--noun, Old Norse

EVER--adverb, Old English

GIVE--verb, Old English

CAUSE--Noun, Latin

SING--verb, Old English

WITH--preposition, Old English

HEART--noun, Old English

VOICE--noun. Old French

NOT--adverb, Old English

THIS--adjective, Old English

LAND--noun, Old English

ALONE--adverb. Old English

BUT--Conjunction, Old English

MERCIES--noun. Old English

KNOWN--verb, Old English

FROM--preposition, Old English

SHORE--noun, Perhaps from middle Low German or Middle Dutch

NATIONS--noun, Old French

SEE--verb. Old English

THAT--conjunction. Old English

MEN--noun. Old English

SHOULD(shall)--verb, Old English

BROTHERS--noun, Old English

FORM--verb, Old French

ONE--adjective Old English

FAMILY--noun, Latin

WIDE--adjective, Old English

WORLD--Noun, Old English

EVERY--adjective, Old French

LATENT--adjective , Latin

FOE--Noun, Old English

ASSASSINS--noun, via French and Italian from Arabic

BLOW--verb, Old French

THINE--adjective, Old French

ARM--noun, Old French

EXTEND--verb. Anglo-French

FOR--preposition, Old French

BRITAINS'S--noun. Old French

SAKE--noun. Old English

MOTHER--noun, old English

PRINCE-- noun, Old French

FRIEND--noun, Old English

Appendix 6

english language assimilation vocabulary

Afrikaans

An Indo-European language spoken in South Africa and Namibia: apartheid, commando, slim, trek...

Akkadian

The extinct Language of the Assyrian and Babylonian Empires in Mesopotamia (the modern day Iraq). The language is a member of the Afro-Asiatic family: Babylon, cherub, Orion, ziggurat...

Albanian

An Indo-European language spoken in Albania and the Kosova region of Serbia: Carpathian...

Algonquin

A member of the Algonquian family of language spoken in North America: caribou, Massachusetts, racoon, tomahawk...

American English

A version of the English language spoken in the United States of America (North America): blizzard, hangover, OK, teenager...

Amharic

An Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Ethiopia: Negus...

Amoy

A Sino-Tibetan language spoken in Eastern China: ketchup, tea...

Anglo-Saxon

A precursor of the English language spoken in England before 1000AD. Anglo-Saxon is (like its modern counterpart) an Indo-European language: Easter, Tuesday, Welsh, Yule...

Arabic

An Afro-Asiatic language spoken on the Arabian Peninsula, in much of the Middle East and in North Africa: alcohol, calibre, monsoon, zero...

Aramaic

An almost extinct Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Syria and Palestine before 200AD: Jesus...

Araucanian

A language spoken in parts of Chile and also known as Mapuche: Chile, poncho...

Arawak

An Andean-Equatorial language spoken in coastal Colombia and the Caribbean: cacique, iguana, tobacco...

Australian English

A version of the English language spoken in Australia: aborigine, nugget, walkabout...

Avestan

An extinct Indo-European language spoken in ancient Perisa: bronze, magic, paradise...

Aymara

An Andean-Equatorial language spoken in the Bolivian Andes and parts of Peru and Northern Chile: alpaca...

B

Balti

An Indo-European language spoken in the Pakistani Himalayas: polo...

Bambara

A Niger-Congo language spoken in the West African countries of Mali, Senegal, Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast: juke, jumbo...

Basque

A language spoken in Northern Spain and South West France that is unrelated to any other language in the world: anchovy, bizarre, jingo...

Beja

An Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Sudan and Eritrea: Beduin...

Bengali

An Indo-European language spoken in Bangladesh and North East India: bungalow, dinghy...

Breton

An Indo-European language spoken in Western France: carol, gaberdine, garrote, valet...

Byzantine Greek

The extinct language of the Byzantine Empire. A member of the Indo-European family: diaper...

C

Cantonese

A Sino-Tibetan language spoken in Southern China, Hong Kong, UK and USA: chopsuey, lychee, wok...

Carib

A language spoken in northern South America and the Caribbean. It belongs to the Carib family: barbecue, cannibal, maize...

Catalan

An Indo-European language spoken in Catalunya, in North East Spain: capsize, paella...

Cherokee

An Iroquoian language spoken in North America: Sequoia...

Choctaw

An Algonquian language spoken in North America: Alabama, Oklahoma...

Cornish

An Indo-European language spoken in the Cornwall region of England: bludgeon, gull...

Cree

An Algonquian language spoken in North America: Eskimo, opossum, skunk, squaw...

Croatian

An Indo-European language spoken in Croatia and Bosnia: cravat...

Cuna

A Macro-Chibchan language spoken along the Atlantic coast of Panama in Central America: Panama...

Czech

An Indo-European language spoken in the Czech Republic: pistol, polka, robot...

D

Danish

An Indo-European language spoken in Denmark: fog, kidnap, ombudsman...

Dharuk

A Pama-Nyungan language spoken in Australia: boomerang, budgerigar, koala, wallaby...

Dutch

An Indo-European language spoken in the Netherlands and Belgium: boss, cookie, lottery, yacht...

E

Egyptian

The extinct language of Ancient Egypt. It is a member of the Afro-Asiatic family: ammonia, ebony, ivory, paper...

Etruscan

The extinct language of pre-Roman Italy: April, ceremony, cistern, Saturn...

Evenki

An Altaic language spoken in Siberia: shaman...

Ewe

A Niger-Congo language spoken in Ghana, Togo and other countries in West Africa: voodoo...

F

Faroese

An Indo-European language spoken in the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic Ocean: skua...

Farsi

An Indo-European language spoken in Iran and Afghanistan. Also called Persian and Iranian: checkmate, lemon, shawl, tambourine...

Finnish

An Uralic language spoken in Finland and parts of Russia: sauna...

Flemish

An Indo-European language spoken in Northern Belgium: brick, duffel, gas, hunk...

Frankish

An extinct Indo-European language spoken in Central Europe during the 8th century AD: coat, marshall, skate, wallop...

French

An Indo-European language spoken in France, Belgium, Swizerland, Canada, Louisiana (a USA state), West Africa, the Caribbean and Indo-China: ambulance, diplomat, parachute, sauce...

G

Gaelic

An Indo-European language spoken in Scotland (UK) and Ireland: bard, golf, slogan, whisky...

Gaulish

An extinct Indo-European language spoken in pre-Roman France: ambassador, carpenter, lawn, Paris...

German

An Indo-European language spoken in Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Central Europe: blitz, dollar, muffin, quartz...

Greek

An Indo-European language spoken in Greece, Cyprus, Middle East and Northern Egypt: athlete, democracy, metropolis, museum...

Guarani

An Andean-Equatorial language spoken in Paraguay and Southern Brazil: jaguar, Paraguay, Uruguay...

Gujarati

An Indo-European language spoken in Gujarat state in Western India: tank...

Guugu-Yimidhirr

A Pama-Nyungan language spoken in Australia: kangaroo...

H

Haitian Creole

A creole language spoken in Haiti: meringue...

Hausa

An Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Northern Nigeria: juju...

Hawaiian

A Malayo-Polynesian language spoken on the islands of Hawaii: hula, ukulele...

Hebrew

An Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Israel: amen, gauze, kosher, messiah...

Hindi

An Indo-European language spoken in Northern India: bangle, Himalaya, jungle, shampoo...

Hottentot

A Khoisan language spoken in Southern Africa: gnu, kudu...

Hungarian

An Uralic language spoken in Hungary and the region of Transylvania in Romania: coach, goulash, paprika, sabre...

I

Ibibio

A Niger-Congo language spoken in Nigeria: tango...

Ibo

A Niger-Congo language spoken in Nigeria: okra...

Icelandic

An Indo-European language spoken in Iceland: eider, geyser, saga, Viking...

Inuit

An Eskimo-Aleut language spoken in Siberia and Alaska: anorak, husky, igloo, kayak...

Iroquois

A language spoken in North America: Canada, Kentucky, Ohio...

Italian

An Indo-European language spoken in Italy and Switzerland: bankrupt, fascist, opera, umbrella...

J

Japanese

An Altaic language spoken in Japan: judo, karate, soy, tycoon...