The borrowings in English language

Borrowings can be partly assimilated graphically, for example in Greek borrowings `y' can be spelled in the middle of the word (symbol, synonym), `ph' denotes the sound /f/ (phoneme, morpheme), `ch' denotes the sound /k/ (chemistry, chaos) nad `ps' denotes the sound /s/ (psychology)( see Appendix 2).

Latin borrowings retain their polysyllabic structure, have double consonants, as a rule, the final consonant of the prefix is assimilated with the initial consonant of the stem, (accompany, affirmative).

French borrowings which came into English after 1650 retain their spelling, for example consonants `p','t' `s' is not pronounced at the end of the word (buffet, coup, and debris), and Specially French combination of letters `eau' /ou/ can be found in the borrowings: beau, chateau, trousseau. Some of digraphs retain their French pronunciation: `ch' is pronounced as /sh/, for example chic, parachute, `qu' is pronounced as /k/ for example bouquet, `ou' is pronounced as /u:/, for example rouge; some letters retain their French pronunciation, for example `I' is pronounced as /i:/, for example chic, machine; `g' is pronounced as /3/, for example rouge.

Modern German borrowings also have some peculiarities in their spelling: common nouns are spelled with a capital letter for example Autobahn, Lebensraum; some vowels and digraphs retain their German pronunciation, for example `a' is pronounced as /a:/ (dictat), `u' is pronounced as /u:/ (Kuchen), `au' is pronounced as /au/ (Hausfrau), / is pronounced `ei' (Reich); some consonants are also pronounced in the German way, for example `s' before a vowel is pronounced as /z/ (Sitskrieg), `v' is pronounced as /f/(Volkswagen), `w' is pronounced as/v/, `ch' is pronounced as /h/(Kutchen).

Non-assimilated borrowings (barbarisms)narenborrowings which are used by Englishmen rather seldom and are non-assimilated, for example addio (Italian), tete-a-tete(French), dolce vita(Italian) duende (Spanish) an home a femme (French), gonzo (Italian) etc.

The role of loan words in the formation and development of English vocabulary is dealt with in the history of the language. It is there that the historical circumstances are discussed under which words borrowed from Latin, from Scandinavian dialects, from Norman and Parisian French and many other languages, including Russian, were introduced into English. Lexicology, on the other hand, has in these connection tasks of its own, being chiefly concerned with the material and results of assimilation.

The main problems of etymology and borrowed words as they concern the English language are comprehensively and consistently treated. It deals with these issues mainly in terms of word sameness reflecting his methodological approach to word theory [18, 456-485]

In the present paragraph attention must be concentrated on the assimilation of loan words as a way of their interaction with the system of the language as a whole. The term assimilation of a loan word is used to denote a a partial or total conformation to the phonetically, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system. The degree of assimilation depends upon the length of period during which the word has been used in the receiving language, upon its importance for communication purpose and its frequency. Oral borrowings due to personal contacts are assimilated more completely and more rapidly than literary borrowings, i.e. borrowings through written speech.

A classification of loan words according to the degree of assimilation can be only very general as no rigorous procedure for measuring it has so far been developed. The following three groups may be suggested: completely assimilated loan words, partially assimilated loan words may be subdivided depending on the aspect that remains unaltered, i.e. according to whether the word retains features of spelling, pronunciation, morphology or denotation (when the word denotes some specific regalia) that are not English. The third group form part of the English vocabulary, because they occur in speech only, but do not enter the language.

Completely assimilated loan words are found in all the layers of older borrowings. They may belong to the first layer of Latin borrowings, e.g. cheese, street, wall or wine. Among Scandinavian loan words we find such frequent nouns as husband, fellow, gate, root, wing; such verbs as call, die, take, want and adjectives like happy, ill, low, odd and wrong. Completely assimilated French words are extremely numerous and frequent. Suffice it to mention such everyday words as table and chair, face and figure, finish and matter. A considerable number of Latin words borrowed during the revival of learning are at present almost indistinguishable from the rest of the vocabulary. Neither animal nor article differs noticeably from native words. The number of completely assimilated loan words follow all morphological, phonetical and as dominant words in synonymic groups. They take an active part in word-formation. Moreover, their morphological structure and motivation remain transparent, so that they arre morphologically analyzable and therefore supply the English vocabulary not only with free forms but also with bound forms, as affixes are easily perceived and separated in series of loan words that contain them. Such are , for instance, the French suffixes -age, -ance, -ment, and English modification of French -eese and -fier,which provide speech material to produce hybrids like shortage, godless, hindrance, specify and endearment. The free forms, on the other hand, are readily combined with native affixes, e.g. pained, painful, painfully, painless, painlessness, all formed from pain Fr. Peine Lat. Poena Gr. Poine `penalty'. The subject of hybrids has already been dealt with in the chapter on derivation [19, 106-107].

Completely assimilated loan words are also indistinguishable phonetically. It is impossible to say judging by the sound of the words sport and start whether they are borrowed or native. In fact start is native, derived from ME sterten, whereas sport is a shortening of disport Fr. deto amuse oneself', ` to carry oneself away from one's work' (ultimately derived from Lat portare `to carry'). This last example brings us to the problem of semantic assimilation. Ths problem deserves far more attention than has hitherto been given to it. Its treatment has been limited so far to passing remarks in works dealing with other subjects. The first thing that needs stressing is that a loan word never brings into the receiving language the whole of its semantic structure if it is polysemantic in the original language. And even the borrowed variants are for the most part changed and specialized in the new system.

The word sport can serve as an illustration. It had a much wider scope in Old French denoting pleasures. Making merry and entertainments in general. It was borrowed into many European languages and became international. This process of semantic specialization in borrowing is even more evident in such loan words from Russian as Soviet and sputnik, whose Russian prototypes are polysemantic. In the light of current ideas, it is convenient to classify and study loan words as oppositions of the words as they exist in the receiving language with their prototypes in the source language, on the one hand, nad with words of the same lexica-grammatical class or (depending on the level chosen) of the same morphological or phonetically pattern in the receiving language.

Specialization is primarily due to the fact that the receiving system has at its disposal words for the older notions, and it is only the notion that needs a new name. Even so, the borrowing of a new word leads as a rule to semantic changes in words already existing in the language. The interaction of linguistic and extra linguistic, i.e. political, economical and cultural factors in this has been investigated [20, 178-179].

The conformity of the completely assimilated loan words to morphological patterns of the English paradigms may be illustrated by Scandinavian loans taking the plural ending -s; eggs, gates, laws; or Latin loan verbs with dental suffix of the Past indefinite and Participle II: acted, corrected, disturbed.

To illustrate the frequency of completely assimilated words it is sufficient to mention that many of them are included in the list of 500 most frequent words are : act (Lat), age(F), army(Fr), bill(Lat), case(Fr), die(Scand) [21, 202-205].

The second group containing partially assimilated loan words can be subdivided into subgroups. The oppositions are equipollent.

Loan words not assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come. They may denote foreign clothing: mantilla, sombrero; foreign titles and professions: shah, rajah, sheik, bei, toreador; forign vehicles: caique (Turkish), rickshaw (Chineese); food and drinks: pilaw (Persian); sherbet(Arabian); foreign currency:krone(Denmark), rupee(India), zloty (Poland) peseta(Spain), rouble(USSR), etc.

Loan words not assimilated grammatically, for example, nouns borrowed from Latin or Greek which keep their original plural forms: bacillus-bacilli; crisis-crises; formula-formulae; index-indices;phenomenon-phenomena. Some of these are also used in English plural forms, but in that case there may be a difference in lexical meaning, as in indices-indexes.

Loan words not completely assimilated phonetically. The French words borrowed after 1650 afford good examples. Some of them keep the accent on the final syllable: machine, cartoon, and police. Others, along side with peculiarities in stress, contain sounds or combinations of sounds that are not standardnfor the English language and do not occur in native words. The examples are [3]-bourgeois, camouflage, prestige,regime,sabotage; {wa}-as in memoir, or the nasalized [a], [o]-melange. In many cases it is different from the rest of the vocabulary, as in some of the Italian and Spanish borrowings: confetti, incognito, macaroni, opera, sonata, soprano and tomato, potato, tobacco.

The pronunciation of words where the process of assimilation is phonetically incomplete will often vary, as in [`foiei] or [`fwaje] for foyer and [`bu:lva:] [`bu:hva:], [`bu:leva:], [`bu:lva:d] for boulevard [22,369-373].

Loan words not completely assimilated graphically. It is fairly large and variegated. There are, for instance, words borrowed from French in which the final consonant is riot pronounced, e.g. ballet, buffet, corps. Some may keep a diacritic mark: cafe, cliche. Specifically French digraphs (ch, qu, our, etc/) may be retained in spelling: bouquet, brioche. Some have variant spellings.

It goes without saying that these sets are interesting, i.e. one and the same loan word often shows incomplete assimilation in several respects simultaneously.

The third group of borrowings comprises the so-called barbarisms; i.e. words from other languages used by English people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any way, and for which there are corresponding English equivalents. The examples are Italian addio, ciao 'good-bye', the French affiche for `placard' and coup or coup d'Etat `a sudden seizure of state power by a small group', the Latin ad libitum `at pleasure' and the like.

The incompleteness of assimilation results in some specific features which permit us to judge of the origin of words. They may serve as formal indications of loan words of Greek, Latin, French or other origin.

1.6 Loan words

Loanwords are words adopted by the speakers of one language from a different language. The main story: some speakers know both languages and find it useful to borrow a word from the source language, perhaps to refer to something being introduced from the source culture (e.g. espresso), and if this repeated enough times the word enters the language and is available for all speakers. In some cases the word may always stand out (e.g., shampoo) and may cause some people to wonder how such a word came into the language [23, 326-336]

The word `loanword' is in fact a type of loanword itself. The word comes from the German word `lehwort', which means precisely loanword. In this case, the meaning of the word has been borrowed into the English equivalents are used.

A loanword can also be called a borrowing. The noun borrowing refers to the process of speakers adopting words from a source language into their native language. `Loan' and `borrowing' are of course metaphors, because there is no literal lending process. There is no transfer from one language to another, and no `returning' words to the source language. The words simply come to be used by a speech community that speaks a different language from the one these words originated in.

Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language communities. Borrowing of words can go in both directions between the two language contact, but often there is an asymmetry, such that more words go from one side to the other. In this case the source language community has some advantage of power, prestige and/or wealth that makes the objects and ideas it brings desirable and useful to the borrowing language community. For example, the Germanic tribes in the first few centuries A.D. adopted numerous loanwords from Latin as they adopted new products via trade with the Romans. Few Germanic words, on the other hand, passed into Latin.

The actual process of borrowing is complex and involves many usage events (i.e. instances of use of the new word). Generally, some speakers of the borrowing language know the source language too, or at least enough of to utilize the relevant word. They (often consciously) adopt the new word when speaking the borrowing language, because it most exactly fits the idea they are trying to express. If they are bilingual in the source language, which is often the case, they might pronounce the words the same or similar to the way they are pronounced in the source language. For example, English speakers adopted the word garage from French, at first with a pronunciation nearer to the French pronunciation than is now usually found.

Presumably the very first speakers who ised the word in English knew at least some French and heard the word used by French speakers, in a French- speaking context.

Those who first use the new word might use it at first only with speakers of source language who know the word, butat some point they come to use the word with those to whom the word was not previously known. To these speakers the word may sound `foreign'. At this stage, when most speakers do not know the word and they hear it think another language, the word can be called a foreign word. There are many foreign words and phrases used in English such as bon vivant (French), mutatis mutandis (Latin), and Fahrvergnuegen (German). However, in time more speakers can become familiar with a new foreign word or expression. The community of users of this source language understand, and even use, the novel word themselves. The new word becomes conventionalize: part of the conventional ways of speaking in the borrowing language. At this point we call it a borrowing or loanword.

Conventionalization is a gradual process in which a word progressively permeates a lager speech community, becoming part of ever more people's linguistic repertoire. As part of its becoming more familiar to more people, a newly borrowed word gradually adopts sound and other characteristics of the borrowing language as speakers who do not know the source language accommodate it to their own linguistic systems. In time, people in the borrowing community do not perceive the word as loanword at all. Generally, thelonger a borrowed word has been in native words of the language, and the more frequently it is used, the more itresembles the native words of the language.English has gone through many periods coincide with times of major cultural contact between English speakers and those speaking other languages. The waves of borrowing during periods of especially strong cultural contacts are not sharply delimited, and can overlap. For example, the Norse influence on English began already in the 8th century A.D. and continued strongly well after the Norman conquest brought a large influx of Norman French to the language.

It is part of the cultyarl history of English speakers that they have always adopted loanwords from the languages of whatever cultures they unfashionable, and there has never been a national academy in Britain, the U.S., or other English-speaking countries to attempt to restrict new loanwords, as there has been in many continental European countries.

English has many loanwords. In 1937, a computerized survey about 80,000 words the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd edition) was published in Ordered Profusion. Their estimates for the origin of English words were as follows:

-Fench, including Old French and early Anglo-French:28.3%

-Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin:28.24%

-Germanic languages, including Old and Middle English:25%

-Greek:5.32%

-No etymology given or unknown: 4.03%

-Derived from proper names: 3.28%

-All other languages contributed less than 1%

However, if the frequency of use of words is considered, words from Old and middle English occupy the vast majority.

The reasons for English's vast borrowing include:

-(to a relatively small extent) the existence of other languages native to Britain;

-The invasion of England by the Vikings and the Normans;

-Its modern importance;

-Its being a scientific language;

-Its development as trade language in the 18th century;

-The flexibility of its syllable structure.

This lack of restrictions makes it comparatively easy for the English language to incorporate new words. Compare this with Japanese, where word `club (itself originally from Old Norse) was turned into `kurabu' because of Japanese's inflexible syllable structure. However, the English pronunciations of loan words often differ from the original pronunciations to such a degree that a native speaker of the language it was borrowed from is not ale to recognize itas a loanword when spoken [24, 210-231]. English often borrows words from the cultures and languages of the British Colomies. For example there are at least 20 words from Hindi, including syce/sais, dinghy, chutney, pundit, wallah, pajama/pyjamas, bungalow and jodhpur. Other examples include trek, aardvark, larger and vld from Africaans, shirang, amok(Malay) and sjambok (Malay and Afrikaans).

The Indians of the new West, it would seem, had little to add the contributions already made to the American people, by the beginning of the second quarter of the nineteenth century, knew almost all they were destined to know of the aborigines, and they had names for all the new objects thus brought to their notice and for most of the red man's peculiar ceremonials. A few translated Indian terms, e.g., squaw-man, Great White Father, Father of Waters, and happy-hunting ground, represent the meager fresh stock that the western pioneers got from him. Of more importance was the suggestive and indirect effect of his polysynthetic dialects, and particularly of his vivid proper names, e.g., Rain in the Face, Young Man Afraid of His Wife and Voice Like thunder. These names, and other word-phrases like them. Made an instant appeal to American humor, and were extensively imitated in popular slang. One of the surviving coinages of that era is Old-Stick-in-the-Mud, which Farmer and Henley note as having reached England by 1823.

Contact with the French in Louisiana and along the Canadian border, and with the Spanish in Texas and further West, brought many more new words. From the Canadian French, as we have already seen, prairie, bateau, portage and rapids had been borrowed during colonial days. To these French contributions bayou, picayune, levee, chute, butte, crevasse and lagniappe an Indian warrior, almost universal until the close of the Indian wars, was also of French origin. From the Spanish, once the Mississipi was crossed, and particularly after the Mexican wa, there came a swarm of novelties, many of which have remained firmly imbedded in the language. Among them were numerous names of strange objects: lariat, lasso, ranch, loco(weed), mustang, sombrero, canyon, desperado, poncho, chapparal, corra, brancho, plaza, peon,cayuse, burro, mesa, tornado, presidio, sierra and adobe. To them, as soon as gold was discovered, were added bonanza, Eldorado, place and vigilate.

1.7 The role of borrowings in the development of English vocabulary

Etymologically the vocabulary of the English language is far from being homogenous. It consists of two layers -the native stock of words and the borrowed stock of words. Numerically the borrowed stock of words is considerably larger than the native stock of words.

In fact native words comprise only 30% of the total number of words in the English vocabulary but the native words form the bulk of the most frequent words actually used in speech and writing. Besides, the native words have a wider range of lexical and grammatical valency, they are highly polysemantic and productive in forming word clusters and set expressions[25; 398-412].

Borrowed words or loanwords are words taken from another language and modified according to the patterns of the receiving language.

In many cases a borrowed word especially one borrowed long ago is practically indistinguishable from a native word without a through etymological analysis. The number of the borrowings in the vocabulary of the language and the role played by themis determined by the historical development of the nation speaking the language.

The most effective ways of borrowing is direct borrowing from another language as the result of the contacts with other nations. Though, a word be also borrowed indirectly not from the source language but through another language.

When analyzing borrowed words one should distinguish between two terms-source of borrowing and origin of borrowing. The first term is applied to the language from which the word was immediately borrowed and second-to the language to which the word may be different approaches to classifying the borrowe stock of words.The borrowed stock of words may be classified according to the nature of the borrowing itself as borrowing proper, loans translation and semantic loans.

Loan translation or calque is a phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word translation.

Semantic loan is the borrowing of the meaning for aword already existing in the English language.

1.8 The contribution of the particular linguistic culture to the forming English vocabulary

An important distinctive feature which has not been discussed so far in this paper is that of origin. According to this feature the word-stock may be subdivided into two main sets. The elements of one are native, the elements of the other are borrowed. A native word is a word which belongs to the original English stock, as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period. A loan word, borrowed word or borrowing is aword taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language.

The native words are further subdivided by diachronic linguistic into those of the Indo-European stock and those of Common Germanic origin. The words haing cognates in the vocabularies of different Indo-European languages form the oldest layer[26' 145-152]/ It has been noticed that they readily fall into definite semantic groups. Among them we find terms of kinship: father, mother, son, daughter, brother. Words naming the most important objects and phenomena of nature: sun. moon, star, wind, water, wood, hill, stone, tree. Names of animals and birds: bull, cat, crow, goose, wolf. Parts of the human bdy:arm, ear, eye, foot, heart, etc. Some of the most frequent verbs are also of Indo-European common stock: bear come, sit, stand and other. The adjectives of this group denote concrete physical properties: hard, quick, slow, red, white. Most numerals also belong here.

A much bigger part of this native vocabulary layeris formed by words of the Common Germanic stock, i.g. of words having parallels in German, Norwegian, dutch, Icelandic, etc., but none in Russian or French. It contains a greater number of semantic groups. The following list may serve as an illustration of their general character. The nouns are : summer, winter, storm, rain, ice, ground, bridge, house, shop, room, coal, iron, led, cloth, hat, shirt, shoe, carre, evil, hope, life, need, rest. The verbs are bake, burn, buy, drive, hear, keep, learn, make, meet, rise, see, send, shoot, and many more and the adjectives are: broad, dead, deaf and deep. Many adverbs and pronouns also belong to this layer.

Together with the words of the common Indo-European stock these Common Germanc words form the bulk of the most frequent elements used in any style of speech. They constitute no less than 80% of the 500 most frequent words list [5,78]. Words belonging to the subsets of the native word-stock are for the most part characterized by a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency, high frequency value and a developed polysemy; they are often monosyllabic, show great word-building power and enter a number of set expressions.

For example, watch Old English waeccan is one of the 500most frequent Engkish words. It may be used as a verb in more than ten different sentence patterns, with or without object and adverbial modifiers and combined with different classes of words. Its valency is thus of the highest. Examples (to cite but a few) ar as follows: Are you going to play or only watch (the oters play)? He was watching the crowd go by.

Watch me carefully. He was watching for the man to leave the house. The man is being watched by the police.

The noun watch may mean `the act of watching', `the guard' (on ships), `a period of duty for part of the ship's crew', ` aperiod of wake-fulness', `close observation', `a time-piece' etc.

Watch is the centre of a numerous word-family: watch-dog, watcher, watchful, watchfulness, watch-out, watchword, etc. Some of the set expressions containing this root are: be on the watch, watch one's step, keep watch, watchful as a hawk. There is also a proverb `the watched pot never boils' used when people show importance or are unduly worrying. The part played by the borrowings in the vocabulary of the language depends upon the history of each given language, being conditioned by direct linguistic contacts and political, economic and cultural relationship between nations. English history contains innumerable occasions for all types of such contacts. It is the vocabulary system of each language that is particularly responsive to every change in the life of speaking community. Nowhere, perhaps, is the influence of extra-linguistic social reality so obvious as in the etymological composition of the vocabulary. The source, the scope and the semantic sphere of the loanwords are all dependent upon historical factors. The very fact that up to 70% of English vocabulary consist of loan words, and only 30% of the words are native is due not to inherent tolerance of foreign elements but specific conditions of the English language development. The Roman invasion, the introduction of Christianity, the Danish and Norman conquests and, in the modern times, the specific features marking the development of British colonialism and imperialism combined to cause important changes in the vocabulary.

The number of loan words in the English language is high that many foreign scholars were inclined to reduce the study of the English vocabulary to the discussion of its etymology, taking it for granted that the development of English was mainly due to borrowing [27, 345-368]. They seemed to be more interested in tracing the original source, form and meaning of every lexical element than in studying its present functioning and peculiarities.

Although the mixed character of the English vocabulary cannot be denied and the part of borrowing in its development is indeed one of great importance, the leading role in the history of this vocabulary belongs to word-formation and semantic changes patterned according to the specific features of the English language system. This system adsorbed and remodeled the vast majority of loan words according to its own standards, so that it is sometimes difficult to tell an old borrowing from a native word. Examples are: cheese, street, wall, wine and other words belonging to the earliest layer of Latin borrowings. Many loan words, on the other hand, in spite of the changes they have undergone after penetrating into English, retain some peculiarities in pronunciation, spelling, orthoepy and morphology.

Thus, the initial position of the sounds [v], [dz], [s] is a sign that the word is not of native stock. Examples are: vacuum (Lat), valley(Fr), voivode (Russ), vanadium (Swedish), vanilla(Sp), etc. The sound [d3] may be rendered by the letters g nad j: gem-Lat. Gemma and jewel-Fr. jouel. The initial [3] occurs in comparatively late borrowings: genre, gendarme (Fr). The letters j, x, z in initial; position and such combinations as ph, kh, eau in the root indicate the foreign origin of the word: philology (Gr), khaki (Indian), beau(Fr). Some letters and combinations of letters depend in their orthoepy upon the etymology of the word. Thus, x is pronounced [ks] and [gz] in words of native and Latin origin respectively, and [z] in words coming from Greek: six[siks] (native), exist[ig'zist] (Lat), but xylophone (Gr) is pronounced [`zailafoun].

The combination ch is pronounced [tS] in native words and early borrowing: child, chair; [S] inlate French borrowings: machine [me'Si:n], parachute[`paeraSu:t] and [k] in words of Greek origin: epoch [`i:pok], chemist [t'kemist], echo[`ekou].

The phono-morphological structure of borrowings is characterized by a high percentage of polysyllabic words: company, condition, continue, government, important and the like are among the most frequent. Bound stems prevail.

1.9 Borrowimgs into English from other language

Borrowings from Scandinavian language

By the end of the Old English period English underwent a strong influence of Scandinavian due to the Scandinavian Conquest of British Isles. Scandinavians belonged to the same group of peoples as Englishmen and their languages had much in common. As the result of this conquest there are about 700 borrowings from Scandinavian into English.

The English and Scandinavian belong to the same Germanic racial, cultural and linguistic stock features and words. But changes had occurred in the languages during the couple of centuries of separation of the two sets of people. The Scandinavians came to settle, rather than conquer or pillage. They lived alongside the Anglo-Saxons on more or less equal terms.

Under the Norman French, particularly, the two different groups fashioned a common life together as subjects.

Under these conditions:

The English word sometimes displaced the cognate Scandinavian word:fish instead of fisk; goat instead of gayte;

The Scandinavian word sometimes displaces the cognateEnglish word: egg instead of ey, sister instead of sweoster;

Bothe might remain, but with somewhat different meanings: dike-ditch, hale-whole, raise-rise, sick-craft, skirt-shirt;

The English word might remain, but takes on the Scandinavian meaning dream(originally `joy', 'mirth', `music', `revelry');

The English words that were becoming obsolete might be given a new lease of life, eg dale and barn.

Scandinavian and Englishmen had the same way of life, their cultural level was the same, and they had much in common their literature therefore there were many words in these languages which were almost identical, e.g.

Modern English	ON	OE
sister	syster	sweoster
Fish	Fiscr	Fisk
fellow	Felagi	felawe

However there were also many words in the two languages which were different, and soe of them were borrowed into English, such nouns as: bull, cake, egg, kid, knife, skirt, window etc, such adjective as: flat, ill, happy, low, odd, ugly, wrong, such verbs as: call, die, guess, get, give, scream and many others.

Even some pronouns and connective words were borrowed which happens very seldom, such as: same, both, till, fro, though and prominal forms with `th': they, them, their [28, 15-17].

Scandinavian influenced the development of phrasal verbs which did not exist in Old English, at the same time some prefixed verbs came out of usage, e.g. ofinam, beniman. Phrasal verbs are now highly productive in English take off, give in etc. Most of these appeared in the written language in the Middle English; but many were no doubt borrowed earlier, during the period of the Danelaw (9th-10th centuries). Anger, blight, by-law, cake, call, clumsy, doze, egg, fellow, gear, get, give, hale, hit, husband, kick, kill, kilt, kindle, low, lump, rag, raise, root, scathe, scorch, score, scowl, scrape, scrub, seat, skill, skin, skirt, sky, sly, take, they, them, their, thrall, thrust, ugly, want, window, wing. Place name suffixes:-by, -thorpe, --gate. Scandinavian words in modern English period: fjord, maelstrom, ombudsman, ski, slalom, smorgasbord.

Borrowings from French language

The English language has been shaped by a number of other languages over the centuries, and many English speakers know that Latin and German were two of the most important. What many people don't realize is how much the French language has influenced English.

Without going into too much detail, I want to give a little bit of background about the other languages which shaped English. It was born out of the dialects of three German tribes (Angles, Jutes and Saxons) who settled in Britain in about 450 A.D. This group of dialects forms what we know as Old English. This Germanic base was influenced in varying degrees by Celtic, Latin and Scandinavian (Old Norse)-the languages spoken by invading armies.

The Norman conquest of 1066 is called the `final cataclysm which awaited the English language. `When William the Conqueror became king of England, French took over as the language of court, administration, and culture and stayed there for 300 years. Meanwhile, English was `demoted' to everyday, unprestigious uses. These two language existed side by side in England with no noticeable difficulties. In fact, since English was essentially ignored by grammarians during this time, it took advantage of its lowly status to became a grammatically simpler language and, after only 70 or 80 years existing side-by-side with French, Old English segued into Middle English.

During the Norman occupation, about 10,000 French words was adopted into English, some three-fourths of which are still in use today. This French vocabulary is found in every domain, from government and law to art and literature- learn some. More than a third of all English words are derived directly or indirectly from French, and it's estimated that English speakers who have never studied French already know 15,000 French words.

English pronunciation owes a lot to French as well. Whereas Old English had the unvoiced fricative sounds [f], [s], [?], [?](shin), French influence helped to distinguish their voiced counterparts [v], [z],[?](the), and [3] 9mirage), and also contributed the diphthong [0i] (boy).

Grammar is another rare but interesting remnant of French influence is in the word order of expressions like secretary general and surgeon general, where English has retained the noun +adjective word order typical in French, rather than the usual adjective+noun used in English.

Thelargest groups of borrowings are French borrowing. Most of them came into English during the Norman conquest. French influenced not only the vocabulary of the local population was mainly illiterate, and the ruling class was French.

As it was difficult for French scribes to copy English texts they substitud the letter `u'before `v', `m', `n' and digraph `th' by the letter `o' to escape the combination of many vertical lines /'sunu'-`son', `luvu'-love'/.

There are the following semantic groups of French borrowings:

Words relating to law and government: administer, empire, state, government, attorney, bailiff, chancellor, chattel, country, court, crime, defendant, evidence, jail, judge, jury, larceny, noble, parliament, plaintiff, prison, revenue, state, tax, verdict;

Words relating to military affairs: army, war, banner, soldier, battle, artillery, battle, captain, company, corporal defense, enemy, marine, navy, sergeant, soldier, volunteer;

Words relating to jury: advocate, petition, inquest, sentence, barrister;

Words relating to culture and luxury goods: luxury, coat, collar, lace, pleat, embroidery, art, bracelet, claret, clarinet, dance, diamond, fashion, fur, jewel, oboe, painting, pendant, satin, ruby, sculpture;

Words relating to jewelry: topaz, emerald, ruby, pearl;

Words relating to food and cooking: lunch, dinner, appetite, to roast, to stew, beef, boil ,broil, butcher, dine, fry, mutton, pork, poultry, roast, salmon, stew, veal;

Words were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mainly through French literature, but they were not as numerous and many of them are not completely assimilated. There are the following semantic groups of these borrowings:

Words relating to literature and music: belle-lettres, conservatorie, brochure, nuance, pirouette, vaudeville;

Words relating to military affairs: corps, echelon,fuselage, mnouvre;

Words relating to buildings and furniture: entresol, chateau, bureau;

Words relating to food and cooking: ragout, cuisine.

Borrowings from Arabic language

Contact between cultures leads to borrowing between languages. Borrowing may be cultural in nature, incorporating terms that denote previously unfamiliar objects or concepts, or social, incorporating what are viewed as more prestigious terms that denote familiar items or concepts for which perfectly serviceable native terms already exist.

Language use various strategies I borrowing: perhaps adopting and preserving the form used in the donor language, sometimes adapting the word to conform more closely to their own phonological and morphological systems, and sometimes creating a new word through loan translation. Not surprisingly, the extend and nature of borrowing between two languages reflect the extend and nature of the contact between the corresponding cultures[29, 343-351].

During the middle Ages and the Renaissance, English speakers came into contact with the prestigious intellectual centers of the Arab world. This contact led to a flow of borrowings from Arabic into English, primarily in the fields of chemistry, medicine, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, optics, physics, botany, literature, religion, (chiefly Islam), music, warfare, shipping, trade, architecture, geography, government and sovereignty.

Under the rule of the Ottoman Turks, from the fifteenth to the early twentieth centuries, Arabic culture had little contact with other foreign cultures and Classical Arabic admitted few foreign words. Colloquial Arabic of Syria includes a vast number of older loan words from Turkish and Persian, as well as more recent loan historically been open to linguistic borrowing: from Celticduring theAnglo-saxon settlement of England in the fifth century A.D. to the flood of frnch borrowings under Norman rule. Since that time, English has borrowed intensively from many different languages, largely because the British Empire was so wide spread. As a result,approximately sixtypercent of English lexicon stems from borrowing.

The nineteenth century saw the beginning of European domination of Arabic-speaking lands. This exposure to western culture and technology, particularly the rapid developments of recent years, has forced Arabic to accommodate itself to the terminology needed to participate the modern world: Standard Arabic has become increasingly willing to adopt foreign terms. Thus, the direction of borrowing has reversed: English has come to dominate much current technological development and the flow of technology into Arabic-speaking countries has been accompanied by many English terms.

Arabic via Spanish -alcove, algebra, zenith, algoritm, almanac, azimuth, alchemy, admiral;

Arabic via other Romance languages- amber, cipher, orange, saffron, sugar, zero, coffee;

Examples of borrowings from Arabic language in modern English period Bedouin, emir, jakir, gazelle, giraffe, harem, hashish, lute, minaret, mosque, myrrh, salaam, sirocco, sultan, vizier, bazaar, caravan.

Borrowings into English from Arabic

What do you notice about the following sentence: Would you like coffee with sugar, or with syrup, or sherbet lemon, or alcohol?

All the above nouns are derived from Arabic. This imaginary conversation might then continue: No, thanks. I'd rather sit on the divan, in the alcove, and read the magazines about Arsenal football match in Gibraltar. So long! Or, as they say over there, hasta luego!

Another seven words of Arabic origin! Words borrowed into English tend to be nouns, for example al-kuhul, which literally `the spirit'.

Sometimes, the borrowed words have undergone changes, as in dar a-sina'a for arsenal, literally `house of industry', where the initial d has been dropped, and final l added. Spanish has borrowed this twice, as darsena and arsenal which both mean dockyard, while the English word has now lost the archaic meaning of dockyard.

The word magazine means not only a book, but also a place where weapons and ammunition are stored- and yes, an arsena! It comes from Arabic makhzan meaning 'store'. The clue to its Arabic origin is the word pattern ma-a indicating a locative noun.

Of all the European languages, Spanish has absorbed by the greatest proportion of Arabic words. In 711 the Arabs landed at a rock they named the hill of tariq, orjabal tariq-Gibraltar. Arab rule in Spain then lasted for eight centuries. The absorption of Arabic words into European languages throughout these centuries-

Europe's Dark Ages-paints a fascinating picture of the Arab contribution to the development of arts, sciences and commerce.

Perusal of Spanish dictionary for words beginning with the Arabic definite article al will reveal diverse borrowings from Arabic in every field from astronomy, alchemy and algebra, to cookery, engineering and philosophy.

An interesting borrowing is the informal valediction so long, from salaam, an Arab and Muslim greeting, meaning peace. The Spanish farewell hasta luego, means literally `until then'. This is an unusual borrowing of the Arabic preposition hattaa. In this work. I examine the extend and effects of lexical borrowing between American English and Syrian Arabic, focusing on 1) changes to the phonology and morphology of the borrowed words and 2)changes to the phonological structure of the borrowing language. Loan words with an unfamiliar sound structure are the most likely to go through an adaptive process, so that they will better accord with the phonological structure of the recepient language. Because of their contrasting phonological systems, Arabic is more likely to adopt English words outright-preserving the original sounds-while English is more likely to adopt certain Arabic sounds by replacing them with similar English sounds. There is no in diction that Arabic loan words have had any effect on the phonological system of English. English appears, however, to be partly responsible for, not the introduction, but at least an increase in the use of the sounds /g/, /v/ and /p/ in Syrian Arabic.

Chaucer's use of Arabic words:

Chaucer was the first to use twenty-four new loanwords from Arabic(loaned primarily through French). According to Cannon's historical Dictionary, no other British author of the Medieval or Renaissance period(including Shakespeare) employed an Arabic loanword for the first time. Chaucer , however was deeply interested in medieval science and philosophy and used such learning in his literary works, including his `Treatise on the Astorabe' composed in 1391.

ARAbic loanwords first record in Chaucer's works include:

-(of astronomy) Almagest, almanac, almucantar, almury, Alnath, nadir;

-(of chemistry) alkali, azimuth, borax, tartar, amalgam (as averb);

-(of clothing) satin, gipon;

-(of the military) lancegay, jupon;

-(of games) fers, checkmate;

-(miscellaneous) Damask, Sarsenish, fen, Arabic, ribibe, carrack, dulkarnon;

The popularity of the game of chess is evident from Chauser's use of both the interjection `chekmate' and the noun `fers'.IN `Troilus and Criseyde', Chaucer makes no overt reference to the game when he has Criseyde announce her determination not to remarry: 'Shall noon housbonde seynto me' Check mat!' However, in his earlier poem, `The Book of the Duchess', Chaucer explicitly mentions chess before he introduces the new word'fers' as the namefor the queen chess piece. The Black Knight imagines that he has lost a chess game with Fortune:

At the chess with me she gan to pleye;

With hir false draughts dyvers

She stal on me and tok my fers

And whan I sawgh my fers awaye

Allas, I kouthe no lenger pleye[30,651-656].

Etymologically, the interjection checkmate comes from the Arabicand Persian shah mat, meaning `the king is dead'. The word fers derives ultimately from the Arabic word firzhan, meaning `wise man or a counsellor'. Incidentally, the word chess-appearing first around 1300 in the Cursor Mundi-is a Middle English adoption of the Old French word for the plural of `check': esches (the initial e is dropped in English).In Chaucer's use of words like frs and checkmate (new to Middle English), we can see the gradual emergence of Arabic influence-in both culture and language-within medieval England and Middle English.

Borrowings from Russian and some other languages

There were constant contacts between England and Russia and they borrowed words from one language into another. Among early Russian borrowings there are mainly words connected with trade relations, such as:rouble, copeck, pood, starlet, vodka, sable and also words relating to nature, such as: taiga, tundra, steppe etc.

There is also a large group of Russian borrowings which came into English through Russian literature of the 19th century, such as: narodnik,moujik, duma and zenstvo, volost, ukase etc, and also words which were formed in Russian wit Latin roots, such as: nihilist, intelligenzia, Decembrist etc.

After the Great October Revolution many new words appeared in Russian connected with the new political system, new culture, and many of them were borrowed into English, such as:collectivization, undarnik, komsomol etc. and also translation loans, such as: shock worker, collective farm, five-year plan etc.

One more group of Russian borrowings is connected with perestroika, such as:glasnost, nomeklatura, apparatchik etc.[31, 91-94].

Spanish borrowings came into English mainly through its American variant. There are the following semantic groups of them:

Trade terms: cargo, embargo;

Names of dances and musical instruments: tango, rumba, habanera, guitar;

Names of vegetables and fruit: tomato, potato, tobacco, cocoa, banana, ananas,apricot etc.

Cultural and trade relations between Italy and England brought many Italian words into English. The earliest Italian borrowing came into English in the 14th century; it was the word `bank' from the Italian `banko'-`bench'. Italian money-lenders and money-changers sat in the streets on benches. When they suffered losses they turned over their benches, it was called `banko rotta' from which the English word `bancrupt' originate. In the 17th century some geological terms were borrowed:volcano, granite, bronze, lava. At the same time some political terms were borrowed: manifesto, bulletin. But mostly Italian is famous by its influence in music and in all Indo-European languages musical terms were borrowed from Italian: alto, baritone, basso, tenor, falsetto, solo, duet, trio, quartet, quintet, opera, operette, libretto, piano and violin [32, 485-489].

Among the 20th century Italian borrowings we can mention: gazette, incognito, autostrada, fiasco, fascist, dilettante, grotesque, graffito etc.

Holland and England have constant interrelations for many centuries and made more than 2000Holland borrowings were borrowed into English. Most of them are neutcal terms and were mainly borrowed in the 14th century, such as: freight, skipper, pump, keel, dock, reef, deck, leak and many others.

Chinese Loan Words in the English Language

There are few English words with a Chinese origin. Most of these loan words refer to Chinese objects and concepts such as feng shui and coolie. However, a few, such as gung ho and tycoon have evolved into mainstream usage. Many of the Chinese loan words made into the English language as pronounced in the Cantonese or Amoy dialect because the early contact between the two cultures happened along the southern Chinese ports of call or through the mostly Cantonese immigrants. In addition many of the Japanese words, such as judo or shinto, that were adopted into the English language have a Chinese origin.(Appendix 10)

1.10 Forms of influence of one language on another

Borrowing of vocabulary. The most common way that languages influence each other is exchange of words. Much is made about the contemporary borrowing of English words into other languages, but this phenomenon is not new, nor is it even very large by historical standards. The large-scale importation of words from Latin , French and other languages into English in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was more significant .Some languages have borrowed so much that they have become scarcely recognizable. Armenian borrowed so many words from Iranian languages, for example, that it was at first considered a branch of the Indo-European languages for many decades[33,314-458].

Borrowing of other language features. The influence can go deeper, extending to the exchange of even basic characteristics of a language such as morphology and grammar. Nepal Bhasa, for example spoken in Nepal, is a Sino-Tibetan language distantly related to Chinese, but has had so many centuries of contact with neighboring Indo-Iranian languages that it has even developed noun inflexsAion, a trait typical of Indo-European family but rare in Sino-Tibetan. It has absorbed features of grammar as well, such as verb tenses. Romanian was influenced by the Slavic languages spoken by neighboring tribes in the centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire, not only in vocabulary but also in phonology and morphology. It is easy to see how a word can diffuse from one language to another, but not as obvious how more basic features can do the same; nevertheless, this phenomenon is not rare. Language shift. The result of the contact of two languages can be a higher social position. This sometimes leads to language endangerment or extinction. Substratal influence. However, when language shift occurs, the language that s replaced (known as the substratum)can leave a profound impression on the replacing language (known as a superstratum), when people retain features of the substratum as they learn new language and pass these features on to their children, leading to the development of a new variety [34,94-152]. For example, the Latin that came to replace local languages in present-day France during Roman times was influenced by Gaulish and Germanic. The distinct pronunciation of the dialect of English spoken in Ireland comes from the influence of substratum of Irish.