"Just" transposition: semantic dynamics

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"Just" transposition: semantic dynamics

Mykhaylenko V.V.

King Danylo University

English words such as just-only, still-yet, now-then, here-there and others (cf: Aijmer, 2002) look simple, but are often misunderstood among the EFL/ESL learners, as well as linguists. They bear various labels: "particles," "fillers," "adverbs," "small words," "fillers," "modal particles," "discourse particlts," "focus particle," "fillers," "discourse coherence particles," etc. (see Haselow, 2011).

We understand that the main source of ambiguity lies in the subjectivity of decoding semantic relationship ofjust and its contexts. We have retrieved our corpus of text fragments from the novels "the Firm" (1991) and "The Associate" (2009) by John Grisham. The author's language has not changed for two decades, the both communities of characters are well-educated and their speech reflects American Standard used by males and females avoiding dialectical and colloquial words. The just particle in the ST (English) and the TT (Russian) demonstrates the same common features, though in the ST the emphasis is on the just in the phrase, while in the TT is on the other constituent of the phrase which makes its omission possible and considering it as a filler. The Russian renderings of just seem to have much in common with their English correspondences, however, the cases of its omission in the TT prove the grammatical transposition of just which can cause its full desemantization. No doubt, this thesis needs a research of the bilingual corpora including texts of various styles and genres. The particle just and its relationships with the discourse allows to give an objective description of lexical semantics which differentiates a number of component in its dictionary entry and the functional semantics as the result of the correlation of the item and the context. The English discourse particles are traditionally considered to be more typical of spoken than of written language though as our data shows they are quite possible in various genres and styles. The Corpus investigations can also shed light on other discourse particles and their functional semantics in English and their Russian renderings. english linguists particles

Key words: adverb, particle, discourse marker, transposition, functional, translation.

Михайленко В.В. Транспозиція "JUST": семантична динаміка

Англійські слова, такі як just-only, still- yet, now-then, here-there та ін. (пор.: Aijmer, 2002), прості на перший погляд, проте вони складають труднощі як для студентів, так і для науковців. Їх термінологія - "particles," "fillers," "adverbs", "small words," "fillers," "modal particles," "discourse particlеs," "focus particle," "fillers," "discourse coherence particles," "focus particle," "fillers," ''discourse coherence particles," (див. Haselow, 2011) та ін. - породжує більше питань, ніж відповідей. Розуміємо, що основне джерело багатозначності полягає в суб'єктивності декодування смислових взаємозв'язків одиниці just та її контекстів. Ми дібрали наш корпус текстових фрагментів з романів "Фірма" (1991) та "Адвокат" (2009) Джона Гршема. Його авторська мова не змінилася протягом двох десятиліть, обидві групи героїв високо освічені, а їхнє мовлення відображає американський стандарт, що використовується і чоловіками, і жінками, які уникають діалектичних та розмовних слів. Частка just у мові оригіналу (англійській) та у мові перекладу (російській) демонструє однакові загальні риси, хоча в англійському тексті наголос на самій одиниці у складі фрази як єдності й навпаки у російському тексті наголос на основному складовому слові фрази, що викликає можливе опущення just у перекладі або потрактування його як фатичної одиниці. Опущення just у тексті перекладу - додатковий покажчик його граматичної транспозиції та повної десемантизації. Без сумніву, ця теза потребує дослідження двомовних корпусів текстів різних стилів і жанрів. Частка just та її взаємозв'язок з дискурсом дає змогу провести об'єктивний опис її лексичної семантики, яка вирізняє низку компонентів у словникових дефініціях та функціональну семантику, актуалізовану у контекстах. Англійські частки традиційно вважаються типовими для усного мовлення, ніж для писемного мовлення, хоча, як свідчать наші дані, вони є цілком можливими в різних жанрах та стилях.

Ключові слова: прислівник, частка, дискурсний маркер, транспозиція, функціональний, переклад.

Defining the problem and argumentation of the topicality of its consideration. Different schools of grammar suggest different classifications of the parts of speech: 8-9 according to the form; 2 major classes according to the function - notional and functional; and 2 major classes according to the meaning - open or content and close or functional. Hence, every word must be assigned to a definite part of speech paradigm. In the word grammar it used to be an unconditional basis of language structure, which began to be shattered with the sentence grammar, wherein the change of the word position in the sentence pattern causes the change in its part of speech paradigm [9, 431]. The English functional grammar enables speakers and writers to represent the world, to interact with one another, and to create coherent messages. Scholars, first, introduced a number of terms labeling the referred outcome - exceptions, polyfunctionalisms, relics, etc. Although, some researchers to meet the challenges of text grammar and then discourse grammar undertake an integral analysis of so-called short or small words to show the tendency of grammaticalization as an engine of restructuring the language.

Analysis of recent research and publications. English words such as just-only, still-yet, now-then, here-there and others [cf: 1] look simple, but are often misunderstood among the EFL/ESL learners, as well as linguists. They bear various labels: "particles," "fillers," "adverbs", "small words," "fillers," "modal particles," "discourse particles," [see 10, 3603] "focus particle," "fillers," discourse coherence particles," etc.

We understand that the main source of ambiguity lies in the subjectivity of decoding semantic relationships of just and its contexts. We have retrieved our corpus of text fragments (from the original and translation) novels" the Firm" (1991) and "The Associate" (2009) by John Grisham. The author's language has not changed for two decades, the both communities are well-educated and their speech reflects American Standard used by male and female characters avoiding dialectical and colloquial words. The just particle in the ST (English) and the TT (Russian) demonstrates the same common features, though in the ST the emphasis is on the just in the phrase as a unity, while in the TT it is on the other constituent of the phrase that makes its omission possible and considering it as a filler.

Maria Alm et al. write that the modal particles in German form a relatively closed class of frequently used but grammatically optional items that are typical of spoken language and fulfill non-propositional functions in discourse [2, 1-3]. For the particles found in the Verbmobil corpus, Bos and Schiehlen provide a classification into classes such as "focus particle", "sentential adverb"or "discourse relation adverb" [4]. The meaning of the particle in-use is very hard to define. Mia Wiegand gives a detailed analysis of the just semantic classification [17, 1-3]. The particle denotes a subjective feature of meaning encoded by the speaker or writer to emphasize his/her own attitude or mode to the event. These classes are sometimes relevant for disambiguation and translation, in particular, for distinguishing sentential usages from discourse usages. D. Lee elaborated his semantic classification of just based on 224 samples [11, 377-378]. But the discourse analysis can broaden the classification due to the close relationship of just and discourse. D. Gutzmann argues that the semantics of the modal particles interacts with the grammatically encoded sentence mood of sentence types [8, 32] or it is bound to the verb-mood and the sentence modality [1, 1-3]. Gabrielle Diwald considers the meaning of modal particles or discourse particles dependent on the interplay of (i) the heteroseme's basic word class function; (ii) its degree of grammaticalization; and (iii) the presence of secondary (embedded or simulated) communicative situations (i.e. conceptual immediacy/distance) in the linguistic material [6, 218-219]. In the framework of the discourse theory such items can be called discourse makers if they are investigated on the discourse level, on the semantic level or functional-semantic level - pragmatic markers. As the literature on the issue proves the term of the item depends on the scholars' approach [see a review: 12, 18-19].

K. Fischer's hypothesis points out that speakers use modal particles in interaction and stresses that in German this may be done by means of modal particles or "discourse particles". So, the main pragmatic function of modal particles is interpersonal, however, Fisher suggests that this interpersonal function does not exclude functions on other levels of discourse; like discourse particles, modal particles can fulfil several functions at the same time [7, 18].

The purpose and the objectives of the article. These particles pose significant problems for the text interpretation, lexicographic practice, machine translation [see 16, 125] and rendering the author's intention represented by the discourse particles. In this research we are concerned with the contrastive semantics of just in the ST (English) and the TT (Russian) and we will, therefore, examine English just and its appropriate renderings in Russian. In the following part we will focus on the etymology of just, its lexical and functional semantics and the correlation with the contexts in the ST and the TT.

The outline of the main research material. The objective of the following part is the occurrences of the English particle just and its Russian renderings, first, in order to illustrate the structural formulae of the just context and, second, to reveal common features of just in the Source Text and the Target Text. We believe that the functional meanings of just according to D. Lee, "emerge" from the connections between just and other elements of the construction in which it occurs. The "central meaning" of just" stresses the notion of preciseness", along either a "downtoning" (specification, restriction, minimization) or "uptoning" (exactness, emphasis, politeness, agreement) axis [see also 15].

1. The Etymology of just (adv.): It developed as "merely, barely" in the 1660s from Middle English sense of "exactly, precisely, punctually" (c. 1400), from just (adj.), and paralleling the adverbial use of French juste. Just now "a short time ago" is from the 1680s. For sense decay, compare anon, soon.

2. Definition just in the dictionary entries:

2.1. Cambridge's definition: (1) exactly; (2) only, simple, almost not or almost, be possible, very completely, fair, morrally correct; (3) used to make a statement or order stronger; (4) used to reduce the force of a statement and suggest that it is not very important; (5) to soften expression. 2.2. Merriam-Webster' definition: (1) having a basis in or conforming to fact or reason; conforming to a standard of correctness; proper proportions, faithful to an original; (2) righteous; (3) deserved; (4) legally correct; (5) something happened a very short time ago, or is starting to happen at the present time. 2.3. Collins' definition: (1) You use just to say that something happened a very short time ago or is starting to happen at the present time;

(2) if you say that you are just doing something, you mean that you are doing it now and will finish it very soon;

(3) if you say that you are just about to do something or just going to do it, you mean that you will do it very soon; (4) you can use just to emphasize that something is happening at exactly the moment of speaking or at exactly the moment that you are talking about; (5) you use just to indicate that something is no more important, interesting or difficult, for example, than you say it is, especially, when you want to correct a wrong idea that someone may get or has already got; (6) you use just to emphasize that you are talking about a small part, not the whole of an amount; (7) you use just to emphasize how small an amount is or how short a length of time is.

We have selected three dictionaries which generalize the components or in other terms - `readings' of the just definition. If we analyse some more dictionary entries, we can increase the number of `nuances', as Molina and Romano suggested, up to - twenty-five. Additionally, those `nuances' may identify some more senses revealed in their contexts [12, 18]. If we follow the given authors, we will model a conceptual domain represented by numerous semantic fields with empty slots being filled from new dictionary entries.

3. Usage of just: In the construction just + imperative (1-6) just is originally an adverb which undergoes a transformation grammaticalization and turns into an imperative particle. Then now it is rather an imperative particle demonstrating its transposition from ADV ^ Particle, for instance:

1. You don't have to say anything. We've done it for every associate for the past fifteen years. Just get the paperwork to Louise. 4.1. Просто передай бумаги Луизе (Ch. 5).JUST + Vimp + NP ^ Просто + Vimp

3. Please don't divorce me, Abby. I swear it will never happen again. Just don't leave me. 8.1. Пожалуйста, не разводись со мною, Эбби. Клянусь, больше этого никогда не повторится. Только не покидай меня (Ch. 7).

JUST +Vimp [Vauz + Neg +Vinf] +Pr ^ Только + Neg + Pr

4. I need signatures, she demanded, and handed him his pen. - Don't ask. Just trust me. 9.1. Мне нужны ваши подписи, - потребовала она, вручая ему перо. - Не спрашивайте. Доверьтесь мне (Ch. 11).

JUST + Vimp + Pr ^ 0 +Vimp + Pr

5. In the meantime, just remember those three things, and be careful. 10.1. Пока же запомните эти три вещи и будьте осторожны (Ch. 11).

JUST + Vimp +nP ^ Пока же + Vimp + NP

6. Just watch him close. Tell Lamar Quin to get real tight with him so if he's got something on his mind, maybe he'll unload. 13.1. Не выпускайте его из виду.

JUST + Vimp + Adj ^ 0 + Imp

In the contexts of fragments 1-6 just seems to soften the directive expressed by imperatives. D. Lee says that just adds to the directive a polte feature [11; see also 5]. We cannot agree that just can be a marker of politeness. The corpora analysis of Spoken English in "The Firm" or, for example, in "The Associate" the contexts under study can be hardly referred to as "polite" reveals its casual feature. Let's compare the fragments with the combination just + Vimp used by the (makeshift) policemen, detective and the suspect (a student).

7. Just give us ten minutes. I promise you won't regret it. 7.1. [Никаких штучек, Кайл, даю слово, - сказал Джинард, и голос его прозвучал совершенно искренне]. Дай нам десять минут. Ты не пожалеешь.

8. I'm not talking until I finish the preliminaries. Just show me your driver's license. I'll show you mine. 8.1. [Вы не услышите от меня ни слова, пока я не пойму, с кем имею дело]. Покажите мне ваши водительские права, а я покажу вам свои.

9. You're making the right decision here, I swear it. Just keep it up, and this will all go away. 9.1. [Ради Бога, Кайл] все пока идет великолепно [Еще несколько вопросов, и мы совершим качественный скачок].

Besides, the Russian translators do not employ any polite units in either novel to render the sentence with just + Vimp [see politeness: 5]. The Oxford English Dictionary just is defined as an adverb (i) "точно, как раз, именно"; (ii) just + like/so "точно так же... как"; (iii) "только что"; (iv) just + think/listen, etc., simply, merely "только, просто"; (v) just + so "точно так же. как". And it may also demonstrate its transposition from Adv ^ particle [14, 17], which also refers to the situation of hesitation or doubt. In case of the reported speech the imperative feature of just in combination with the V let is retained, for instance:

10. A receptionist smiled warmly and said ... if he needed anything while he was in Memphis just let her know. 10.1. Cекретарша, тепло, улыбнувшись, сказала, что со всеми пожеланиями, пока он будет в Мемфисе, мистер Макдир должен обращаться к ней (Ch. 2).

JUST + Vlet + Acc. Inf. Const (Pr + Inf) ^ 0

In the Cnstruction Pron + JUST + VP (8-15) just also has a non-committal attitude to the situation, i.e. "I just think" can be interpreted as ^ I think but I do not know.

11. He knew who I was, knew I'd just been admitted.

Vaux + JUST + Vpart II ^ 0

12. I ask him why, and he said he doesn't have time to explain. I don't know what to say, so I just listen.

12.1. Я не знал, что мне на это ответить, поэтому просто молчал и слушал (Ch. 11).

SO + Pr + JUST + V ^ просто + Vpast

13. "I'd just like to know". 13.1. Просто мне хотелось бы знать? (Ch. 11)

PR + Vaux + JUST +VP ^ WHY +ПРОСТО + PR

14 He's gonna help me get out of here, he just doesn't know it. (Ch. 11)

PR + JUST + Vaux + Neg+ VP ^ 0

15. I'm just curious. 15.1. А что подозреваете вы сами? - В настоящий момент ничего. Пока мною движет только любопытство (Ch. 12).

Pr + Vbe + JUST + Adj ^ Пока + Pr +VP

16. Any suspicions? - No. - Just thought I'd ask.

16.1. Какие-нибудь подозрения? - Нет. Я спросил просто так (Ch. 12).

JUST + Vpast + S CLAUSE ^ ПРОСТО ТАК + S clause

- He said you probably needed the R and R. Do you want to go? - Of course. I'm just a little surprised (Ch. 13).

Pr + Vbe + JUST + V PII ^ 0

17. And, frankly, they just don't understand why they have to. 18.1. Да и, говоря честно, они просто не понимают, с какой стати они должны это делать

(Ch. 6).

JUST + Vapart of the listener, just can be considered as a hedge making the utterance unpersuasive or it exempts the speaker from total commitment [3, 4-5].

In the combination of JUST + SO (13-14) just as a particle underlines the exact state of the situation summed up by so:

18. He admired her legs, which for the moment were positioned just so and demanded to be admired. She was now looking at his shoes (Ch. 12).

JUST + SO ^ 0

19. They moved here from Ohio just so this clown can be near the King's grave. 14.1. Они перебрались сюда из Огайо, специально для того, чтобы этот помешанный был поближе к могиле своего кумира (Ch. 12).

JUST+SO +S clause ^ СПЕЦИАЛЬНО ДЛЯ ТОГО, ЧТОБЫ + S clause 0

In fragment (21) just stresses the temporal feature of the event expressed the temporal adverbial when and the past form of the verb:

20. Just when he began to feel dizzy the typing and smoking stopped. 21.1. В тот момент, когда он почувствовал себя совершенно больным и несчастным, стук машинки смолк, а воздух в комнате вдруг начал проясняться (Ch. 12).

JUST + Conj. when + S clause ^ В тот момент, когда +S clause

In the referred context just +when is a composite conjunction actualizing the temporal feature of the event "exactly at that time.

The combination JUST + LIKE / JUST + AS functions as composite conjunction of comparison:

21. The partners were busier, but just as nice (Ch. 2).

JUST + Conj AS + Adj ^ 0

22. They give him their room numbers, and we suspect he sneaks around and tries to play the big stud, just like Elvis. 23.1. Выкрикивают ему номера комнат, в которых они остановились, и, мы подозреваем, он сшивается где-нибудь поблизости, мечтая сыграть по-крупному, ну прямо как Элвис (Ch. 12).

JUST + Conj LIKE + NP ^ НУ ПРЯМО КАК

23. The glue from the paper and the wet lacquer from the mantel and the newness of the furniture combined for a wonderful fresh aroma. Just like a new house (Ch. 7).

JUST + Conj LIKE + NP ^ 0

In the following contexts just + one / just + another actualizes; its core meaning and functions to "restrict the application of the utterances exclusively to the part focused" [14, 602-604]. The Russian translator treats the English unit as an empty one [se history of transposition: 13, 86]

24. And in a split second he had recalled that Lamar Quin, just one of the forty-one, had gone to Kansas State. 25.1. И в какую-то долю секунды вспомнил, что Ламар Куин, единственный из сорока одного сотрудника, учился в Канзасе (Ch. 1).

JUST +Num (one) + of +Num ^ единственный + PrepNP

25. As far as they're concerned, it's just another accident. Three accidental drownings. 26.1. Там рассматривают это как еще один несчастный случай (Ch. 6).

Vbe + JUST + NP (another +N) ^ еще + NP (Num +NP)

If particles, according to Hajiyev, have no independent lexical meaning of their own, no independent function in the sentence, no grammatical categories and no typical stem-building element [9, 432], then we omit just - the functional semantics of the sentence is sure to change, primarily the speaker's intentional meaning will remain encoded by the listener or reader. Further, the author agrees that the change of the position of just would change the meaning of the sentence [9, 436].

Conclusions and prospects for further research

The unit just is labeled as a discourse particle being investigated in the discourse structure. The unit, originally an adverb, as a constituent of the phrase undergoes a grammaticalization into a particle. Nevertheless, its meaning is actualized due to the close and distant contexts.

The Russian renderings of just seem mostly common with their English correspondences, however, the cases of its omission in the TT prove the grammatical transposition of just which can cause its full desemantization. No doubt, this thesis needs bilingual corpora including texts of various styles and genres. The particle just and its relationships with the discourse allows to give an objective description of original lexical meaning which differentiates a number of components and the functional semantics which resulted in the correlation of the unit and the context. The English discourse particles are traditionally considered to be more typical of spoken than of written language though as our data shows that they are quite possible in various genres and styles.

The Corpus investigations can also shed light on other fillers and discourse particles and their functional semantics in English and their Russian renderings.

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