Strategies and tactics of metaphorical conceptualization of fear in contemporary English

· “your brain froze with fear and your reflexes evaporated” (C.H. Williamson, Don't Mean Nothin', 2013, p.25);

· “<…> the Devil's plan to isolate the mind with fear” (P.R. Hillman, The Spiritual Battle With The Mind, 2013, p.120);

· “My mind was numb with fear and panic” (L. Holland, Boiled Peanuts and Buckeyes, 2006, p.39);

· “I realized that they were out of their minds with fear <…>” (J. Kochanowsky, ýV. Kochanowsky, Lenin, Hitler, and Me, 2019, p.157);

· “<…> my brain sodden with fear” (Cosmicinema.blogspot.com) Personal blog. Mode of access: http://cosmicinema.blogspot.com/2013/01/elephant-ride.html;

· “Just saying the word made her brain curdle with fear” (Wattpad.com) Social Story-Telling Platform. Mode of access: https://www.wattpad.com/676966820-tamassran-qunari-chapter-4

· “<…> my head about to explode with fear (S. McKenzie, You Can Trust Me: A Novel, 2015, p.294).

Fear can also function as a disturbing factor for the appropriate work of the brain and mental processes because it can cause pain and discomfort feeling. People describe their feelings with various words such as whirl, roil, and trill, sometimes comparing fear with something cutting or stabbing.

· “It's small comfort to a mind whirling with fear” (L. Zocco, Moon Flowers: Flash Fiction for Today's Reader, 2012, p.65);

· “Her nerves began to tingle with fear” (B. Freethy, On Shadow Beach, 2010, p.11)

· “Jubal was shaking and his mind roiled with fear and frustration” (A. McCaffrey, ýE. Scarborough, Catalyst: A Tale of the Barque Cats, 2010, p.217);

· “Fear trills through me at the tug on my scalp” (J. Ireland, Vengeance Bound, 2013, p.287);

· “You feel like someone filled your head up with barbed wire” (S. King, Needful Things, 2016, ch.6);

· “<…> the icy claws of fear dug ever more savagely into his dull, exhausted mind <…>” (D. Bhattacharyya, God Never Laughed, 2014, p.66).

2) Fear poisoning the brain

Fear is sometimes compared with a poison fluid, which causes disfunction of the mind when a person experiences various states of fright starting from a slight shock and ending with terror.

· “<…> you poison their minds with fear, hate, greed and jealousy” (K. Schulz, When The Blindfold Falls, 2018, p.1);

3) Hair influenced by fear

Hair as a part of the protective cover of the head also appears to be a locus for conceptualization of fear, because it also has its own peculiarities, such as an ability to change colour (in the state of terror people can sometimes turn grey) and position (hair can stand on end).

· “<…> hair-raising pleas for help-it all grew to a crescendo” (J. Dashner, The Maze Runner: Enhanced Movie Tie-in Edition, 2014, p.339);

· “His neck hair rose up in fear when he thought what it might be” (R. S. Smartt, The Happening, 2014, p.5);

· “I seemed to feel my hair slowly turn to grey on my head” (H. Lamb, A Bottomless Grave: and Other Victorian Tales of Terror, 2013, p.254);

· “My hair stood on end with fear” (A. Fanny, The Third Little Pet Book, with the Tale of Mop and Frisk, 2017, p.10).



2.7 The skin as a locus of metaphorical conceptualization of fear

The skin as a locus of metaphorical conceptualization does not occupy such a significant place as the already described organs. Nevertheless, it plays a significant role for the human body, protecting it from a wide range of external influences, participating in breathing, thermoregulation, metabolism and many other processes. This work highlights two groups of metaphorical conceptualization of fear in this locus:

1) Shivering of the skin

One of the most evident features of the skin in the situation of fear is shiver, which is caused by the pilomotor reflex, which stimulate external nerves coming from our spinal cord.

· “the sort that had made him prickle with fear his one night <…>” (D. Lambdin, The Invasion Year: An Alan Lewrie Naval Adventure, 2011, p.7);

· “<…> creeping fear pricking the skin between his shoulder <…>” (B. Staveley, The Emperor's Blades, 2014, p.85);

· “Indeed, their hearts fear us and their skins shudder from us” (S.Jiwa, The Founder of Cairo, 2013, p.150);

· “Although we were covered in goose bumps with fear, <…>” (D.Henschel, Africa Off The Road, 2015, p.250);

2) Sensation of being out of the skin

Feeling of being out of skin is frequently used for conceptual metaphors of fear, because in this state person can have a desire of escaping from his/her body in order to avoid meeting with fearful creature. Moreover, this feeling can be linked to the notion of inner part of human body (soul), which “leaves” the outer skin in dangerous situations.

· “I nearly jumped out of my skin, my heart was pounding out of my chest” (J. Henning, Deadly Dreams and Desires, 2005, p.71);

· “She felt like she was coming out of her skin” (G. Jantz, ýA. McMurray, Overcoming Anxiety, Worry, and Fear: Practical Ways to Find Peace, 2011, p.56);

· “It's rising off your skin, attraction mixed with fear” (K. Charish, Owl and the Japanese Circus, 2015, p.348);

2.8 Bones as a locus of metaphorical conceptualization of fear

Bones painful with fear

Bones or skeleton of a person is an inner frame, which makes our musculoskeletal system work properly, however, in the state of emotional shock, a person can feel pain and discomfort in various parts of it. These feelings fetter movements of a person and can cause numbness and acute pain.

· “<…> another level shock that hammered at her bones, glacial fear and <…> (W. Styron, Sophie's Choice: A Novel, 2010, p.367);

· “Lyle was face to face with the man, the dark eyes glaring into Lyle's heart, singeing the soul, poisoning the bone” (A. Chabot, Fear the Day, 2007, p.96).

2.9 The neck as a locus of metaphorical conceptualization of fear

The neck as a locus of metaphorical conceptualization is also chosen by authors much less, compared to the inner organs, such as the heart and the stomach. However, the neck serves many vital functions and is often considered to be one of the most vulnerable places in the human body. Different supply routes pass through the neck -- such as the esophagus, larynx, trachea and blood vessels supplying the brain. Muscles, which pass through the neck, provide the head with the greatest mobility. One group of metaphorical conceptualizations of fear is identified:

The neck hurt by fear

· I did not know the ways, precisely, a neck goes taut with fear (L. Purpura, On Looking: Essays, 2006. P.119);

· “Talk about stimulus for fear! The neck is clamped, the neck is stretching <…> (M. L. Graham, Harnessing the Harassment of Human Fears: Tactical Tales/Timeless Truths, 2016, ch.5);

· “<…> the muscles in my upper back and around the neck tense with fear and anxiety <…>” (C. Waya, Encounters with Spirits: How I Met God, Angels, and Demons, 2014, vol.1);

· “His heart raced and fear twisted tightly around his neck <…>” (G. A. Teske, The Soul Sword Chronicles Book Two Racing the Moon, 2009, p.124).

2.10 The liver and the lungs as loci of metaphorical conceptualization of fear

The liver and the lungs are inner organs, which maintain a healthy physical condition of a person, being responsible for different systems: the liver serves as an organ neutralizing various harmful substances, replenishing and storing rapidly mobilized energy reserves. The lungs function as a human respiratory organ, providing gas exchange and blood. Authors tend to use these organs as loci rarely for metaphorical conceptualization, however, several groups of conceptualization were identified.

1) Tension of the organ in the state of fright

· “When the liver becomes tight and contracted, as it does when our bodies are reacting to fear <…>” (A. Druda, The Tao of Rejuvenation: Fundamental Principles of Health, Longevity, 2009, p.120);

· “Lungs tight with fear, he whispered back <…> (A. Carson, First Time For Everything, 2013, p. 214);

2) Fear as a burning substance for the organs

· “my lungs seared with fear” (M.Rodburg, vqronline.org) A national journal of literature&discussion. Mode of access: https://www.vqronline.org/fiction/shelter



2.11 The whole body as a locus of metaphorical conceptualization of fear

Having described the most significant loci for fear conceptualization, ultimately, we came to the whole body as a locus of conceptualization. The notion of the body comprises all the above described organs and limbs, which in total form the whole body of a person. This locus plays one of the most significant roles in the conceptualization, due to the fact that it covers simultaneously both the inner and the outer states of a person who experiences fear, the combination of reactions, caused by it. This paper focuses on several groups of metaphorical conceptualization of fear based on this locus.

1) Numbness of the body

Due to the fact that fear hinders the functioning of all organs, the body as their totality is obviously exposed to the same reactions, such as numbness, tremor, convulsions and so on. The first two categories of this locus will focus on these particular features, which are frequently highlighted by authors in various texts.

· “<…> you will sit there in the wet dark forest, alone, rigid with fear <…>” (P. Mathias, Beat Till Stiff: A Woman's Recipe For Living, 2011, p. 204);

· “When they both thought it was hopeless and they were numb with fear” (B.Hicks, For Every Fear a Promise: A Plan to Prevail Over Fear, 2012, p.44);

· “But this walking statue, this petrified man, made his blood run cold” (Hugo V., Notre-Dame de Paris, p.279);

· “Every muscle in Elise's body seemed to freeze” (C. Townend, Lord Gawain's Forbidden Mistress, 2015, p.186);

· “Her body grew stiff with fear” (B. Wagner, Satan's Choice, 2003, p.172);

· “I am limp with fear, quite unable to take up the reins <…>” (P. Gregory, The Lady of the Rivers, 2013, p.174).

2) Body tremor

· “Viv fell into his arms as the rope dropped away, her body trembling with fear” (S. Cross, Tear You Apart, 2015, p.180);

· “<…> he shook with fear and anger” (Y.Taylor, The Saffron Connection, 2014, ch.15);

· “She shivered with fear just thinking about it” (E. G. Parsons, Captive Fear, 2006, p.77);

· “Clay's body quivered with fear” (Miranda McBain, Sweet Revenge, 2000, p.362);

· “She was furious, almost vibrating with fear and grief <…>” (M. Anderson, Keys to Successful Writing: Unlocking the Writer Within, 2001, p.176);

· “<…> excitement and fear fluttering within her like a flock <…>” (M. Sanz, Seventh Born, 2018, ch.11).

3) The body succumbed to fear

Fear, being dangerous and harmful for people's health, is often compared to a creature, which can take people hostage or, like a real living being, can have a battle with a person. This category of classification considers fear in this particular role of aggressor.

· “Remains always humble, with fear and trembling, in sincerity of heart” (T. Nance, God's Armor Bearer Volume 1: Serving God's Leaders, 2012, p.50);

· “When we lose the battle with fear and it takes control of our soul” (R. Hanson, Confronting the Disclosure's of the Soul: Guilt, Anger, Fear,2007);

· “You may not have the power to change the unwanted fears that have terrorized your life” (H. P. Harrison, Call to Victory: Living in the Anointing, 2007, p.74);

· “<…> or else they're locked up with fear <…> (The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, vol.108, p.56);

· “Even the King, as it seems, was struck with fear at the advance of the army” (Xenophon, The Anabasis of Cyrus, 2008, p.79).

4) Body ailment

As well as in the other loci of metaphorical conceptualization, fear is often viewed as a poisoning liquid, which can cause a person to feel sick.

· “If they became sick, she would be sick with fear” (P. Britton, Kissed by a Cowboy, 2015, p.191);

· “<…> men becoming faint with fear” (R. King, Jehovah Himself Has Become King, 2010, p.71);

· “Fear was the hard, cold lump growing inside of him” (M.Kaye, Strangers at the Altar, p.51);

5) Fear as a destructive natural phenomenon

Having a strong influence on both mental and physical abilities of a person, fear is also conceptualized as a natural phenomenon, which can be foreseen by ordinary people. It is superior to humans, because a lot of natural disasters cannot be prevented even in the 21^st century, with all the modern technologies at our disposal.

· “ Fear began to avalanche inside me” (R. Schad, The Taste of Air: Lam: a Love Story, 2012, p.6);

· “<…> intensifies the enormous building of adrenaline within my body explodes animatedly” (B. Brayley, The Fear, 2012, p.32);

· “My body burns with fear” (O. Beirne, The List That Changed My Life, 2018, ch.21);

6) The body as a container for fear

The classical model, proposed by Z. Kövecses, is relevant practically for every part of the human organism, however, the body as a locus prevails in this particular image-scheme. The body is often compared to a container, which is filled with fear, causing the body to be heavier and more distorted.

· “people impregnated with the vile fear” (B. Burnett, The Lamb, 2003, p.254);

· “<…> he is spontaneously imbued with fear <…>” (D. Cohn-Sherbok, Judaism: History, Belief and Practice, 2003, p.447);

· “We can be inundated by fears <…>” (R. Olesky, A Manual for the Modern Mystic: How to Practice Being in the Presence of God, 2011, p.242);

· “I was suddenly flooded with fear” (V. J. Waks, Hammerspace, 2010, p.176).

· “Fear trickled into Rolzin, holding tight and fast” (J. Johnson, Tales of Hilroko: The Consuming Darkness, 2012, p.213).

7) The body gripped or distorted by fear

Fear can act as a creature, which grabs a person in its “claws” and is represented as a dangerous entitys.

· “I was consumed with fear” (S. Knox, Bi-Polar on Benefits, 2011, p.47);

· “When you are stricken with fear, <…>” (J.Hunt, Fear, 2013, p.57);

· “Just when we need new ideas most, everyone is seized by fear <…>” (D. Pegues, ýR. Temple, Why Smart People Make Dumb Choices, 2010, p.56);

· “Fear trickled into Rolzin, holding tight and fast” (J. Johnson, Tales of Hilroko: The Consuming Darkness, 2012, p.213);

· “The child crouched with fear and hid her face within the folds of her mother's tattered skirt” (L.Schlissel, Women's Diaries of the Westward Journey, 2011, p.181).

Having classified metaphors according to various loci of metaphorical conceptualization of fear, we can conclude that a significant amount of conceptual metaphors are connected both with human physiology and psychology, highlighting peculiar characteristics of the state. Moreover, it should be stated that categories of metaphorical loci sometimes overlap, due to the fact that they are connected by similar physiological systems and react to fear with similar changes. Last but not least, analysis of contemporary English helped identify a diversity of figurative means of expressing fear feeling in English, point out original metaphors and non-standard decisions for reflecting an emotional state. Even in one category of peculiar locus we managed to figure out a considerable variety of metaphors, which reflect similar peculiarity of the body.



Conclusion

To recapitulate the research findings, this paper is aimed at advancing our understanding of the theory of metaphorical conceptualization of fear, first proposed by G. Lakoff and M. Johnson (1980). This theory has already received a significant amount of scholars' attention, nevertheless, it is important to remember that language is a living system, which is updated frequently by its users all around the globe. Due to this fact, language needs constant research in order to track all the changes it undergoes. This work is aimed at investigating various tactics and strategies for metaphorical conceptualization of fear and at creating a new classification for conceptual metaphors based on the loci of fear in the human body. Division of these metaphors helps identify newly emerging concepts of metaphors (original metaphors), highlight some new trends and tendencies, manifested in them. The new classification of conceptual metaphors highlights the correlation of bodily localization of fear (starting from skin and ending with reaction of inner organs of the human body) and conceptualization of this emotional state in the language with specific concepts, preconditioned by the Anglophone culture. This classification also shows cultural specificity of the English language because conceptualization of fear in English is connected practically with every organ of the human body, while this tendency is not observed in some other languages. Taking into account the advanced hypothesis, it should be stated that this idea was proven by the analysis and classification of conceptual metaphors in contemporary English, which showed that English has its own emotion concepts and they are mostly fixed in language. Nevertheless, figurative means of language also undergo changes, which is why we can observe newly emerging concepts and use of original metaphors, describing emotional state of fear. Moreover, it should be emphasized that new, non-traditional forms, with all their diversity and uniqueness, still correlate with the old concepts, revealing the possibilities inherent in the culture and system of language.



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