Strategies and tactics of metaphorical conceptualization of fear in contemporary English

Last but not least, it should be taken into account that conceptualization of fear is shaped by several factors. The first group of factors (physiological and mental state of a person, his/her experience and some culturally preconditioned domains) was described in the previous chapters of this paper. However, another important factor should be highlighted. The understanding of existing emotional concepts and the correlation between a personal emotional state and general image-schematic knowledge about emotions is connected to understanding a broader context, for instance, sociological factors, historical factors, cultural values, norms, working institutions and others. Providing an example of a historical factor, it should be mentioned that the perception of fear feeling has significantly changed due to the shifts in people's worldview over time. For example, in the days of strong influence of religion, fear was perceived as a punishment for sinners, however, in the era of industrialization, where the role of religion had decreased, fear feeling acquired a more material form, and people began to analyze this emotional state and form conceptual metaphors relying on new domains, prompted by emerging tendencies and values.



Conceptual metaphors of Fear in Contemporary English

1. Material of the research

Emotions are considered to be an integral part of people's life, which is why they are constantly verbalized in speech and make up a specific thesaurus of linguistic devices. There are several ways of verbalizing emotions:

1) expressive means of expressing emotions or descriptive emotion words (interjections like wow, hurrah);

2) terminological types or words, which denote a certain emotion in a particular culture (I am sad, I am happy, I am afraid);

3) figurative means of language such as metonyms or metaphors (I was shaking like a leaf meaning the emotion of fear) (Schahovskii, 2010).

The focus of this paper is on the last group of emotion words, because the first two groups lack any metaphorical component. Moreover, it is important to mention that this paper focuses on conceptualization of fear. This emotion was chosen for several reasons:

1) it is a basic emotion, which has a considerable impact on the human language;

2) it has its manifestation in both the physical and mental aspects of people's everyday life, which leads to a considerable variety of figurative means of expressing this emotion in language;

3) it touches upon verbal and nonverbal communication, which is why it is interesting from a scientific point of view to analyze this emotion:

4) the Anglophone culture is known for abundance of figurative means for expressing the emotion of fear.

The latter point needs clarification, because the cultural component is of paramount importance for the conceptualization of any emotion. The locus, or bodily localization, of a particular emotion depends on the culture, in which people express and verbalize their emotions. For instance, previous research (Marmaridou, 2011, p.24) has shown that in the Jewish culture people are known to express their emotions only on their face, which is why other organs, such as the heart and the stomach, are not taken into account while analyzing the expression of emotional state in this culture. At the same time, the focus on emotional verbalization is broader in the Anglophone culture, because emotions have their manifestation practically in every part of the body. Most of them are concentrated in the heart and the stomach. However, other parts of the body are also employed in the verbalization of fear. In this paper, we analyze various loci of emotional conceptualization of the emotion of fear.

Furthermore, it should be said that this work focuses on the inner and outer metaphorization, because the emotion of fear has its visible impact on our body (some bodily manifestations, such as shiver or sweat) and also influences our inner state (heart palpitation or limb spasms). Despite the fact that all these reactions in our body do have specific terminological designations, people tend to compare this state with some similar experiences, which they have faced or had in the past, which is why conceptual metaphor is an important tool for an individual for expressing his/her emotions.

The empirical part of this research is aimed at creating a new classification of conceptual metaphors of fear, which is based on the locus of the expressed emotion. The loci addressed in this paper include the heart, the stomach, the eyes, the skin, the hair, the head, the body as a whole, the face, the throat, the neck, the bones, the liver and the lungs. It should be stated that both inner and outer metaphorization is sometimes connected with metonymy (metaphtonymy - explained above). Metaphor serves as a mechanism for transferring external experiences of an individual into the internal sphere, while metonymy at the same time constitutes the source of metaphorical projection, since metaphorical conceptualization is employed only for areas where a person is influenced physically.

The sphere of our research is limited by the English language, which is why it is focused on works/articles/blogs/posts on social networks, written by representatives of the English-speaking cultures. This research features the contemporary English language, which is why we concentrated mostly on works and publications, dated 2000-2019. Nevertheless, it is important to mention that the contemporary language includes some set phrases and expressions, which have been used in the language for a long period of time, but have not lost their relevance for speakers of these cultures. Due to this, the empirical part of the paper covers both trite metaphors (widely used in speech, with a lot of their freshness lost) and original metaphors, which are connected with the newly emerging trends in English culture. This paper considers 300 examples of conceptual metaphors of fear. The research was based on the analysis of COCA Corpus of Contemporary American English. Mode of access: https://www.english-corpora.org/coca/., social blogs with the subject of horror films/books, science fiction, horror and novel books, and random sampling with the help of Google books.



2. Various loci of metaphorical conceptualization of fear

2.1 The heart as a locus for metaphorical conceptualization of fear

The heart is one of the most important organs, which enables our body to function properly, which is why it is considered to be the locus of all basic emotions starting with fear and ending with delight. Speaking about the heart as a locus of metaphorical conceptualization of fear, it is understandable that practically all conceptual metaphors, connected to this organ, reflect the inner state of a person in a dangerous situation. Peculiarities of metaphorical conceptualization of fear in this locus can be divided into several subcategories:

1) The heart's movement in the state of fear

In various contexts speakers concentrate on different movements of the heart in order to reflect the inner emotional state of a person more precisely based on his/ her physical perception while experiencing fear.

The heart is described as being capable of making ascending and descending movements in the emotional state of fear. Describing the heart, which is not stable and not in “its initial position”, speakers show an unfamiliar and painful sensation of a person in a dangerous situation. Ascending movements of the heart are represented at the verbal level with such words as leap, surge, raise, jump, etc.:

· “Besides the fear knotting in my gut, I now had my heart leaping up my throat and tapping my tonsils because of her touch” (H.P. Gravelle. The Bamboo Heart, 2015, p.395);

· “You will feel your heart surge with fear or resentment” (C. Feldman. Compassion: Listening to the Cries of the World, 2016, ch.7);

· “My heart rose to my throat” (S. Nanua. The Poisoned Emerald, 2014, p.16);

· “A low vibration ran through the house and my heart jumped with fear” (T.H. Kitts. The bleeding heart: Lilith Mercury, Werewolf Hunter, #6, 2015, p. 167);

· “Suddenly the doorbell rang, and my heart jumped up in my chest” (J. Henning. Deadly Dreams and Desires, 2015, p. 59)

At the same time, there is a considerable variety of metaphors, which describe a descending movement of the heart in the state of fright, dismay or terror with the help of the verbs sink, drop, fall, collapse, etc.:

· “My heart dropped, but not too far” (S. King, Just After Sunset: Stories, 2018, p.444);

· “My heart sank into my stomach” (G. Hallowell, In the Belly of a Lion, 2016, p.10);

· “Then her heart fell with fear as she turned to study his unreadable face” (E. MacDonald. Voices on the Wind, 1994, p.81);

· “<…> all who had nurtured and guided him, his heart collapsed with fear” (A. Villanueva. Weeping Woman: La Llorana and other stories, 1994, p.134).

Having analyzed various texts, we came to the conclusion that in metaphorical conceptualization of fear the heart can also move in a curve, zigzag and a circular trajectory. These movements are initially understood with the help of our body's state and movement. When the body of a person is twisted or curved, he/ she feels physically uncomfortable, and this external experience is transferred to the inner state of a person and is connected to some organs like the heart and the stomach.

· “He gave me a crooked smile, and my heart flipped in my chest” (R. Helms. Proposal, 2015, p.97);

· “<…> and Zach's heart twisted with fear even as Tucker came to his feet so fast he spilled his drink” (C. Anderson. Here to Stay, 2011, p.61);

· “My heart turned over with fear that her answer might not be the one I desired” (K. Bacon. An Eye of Glory: The Civil War Chronicles of a Citizen Soldier, 2011, p.41).

Speaking about curve and circular movements of heart, another group of metaphors should be identified. The heart palpitation can be verbalized with more vivid language means denoting more complex movements, such as trembling, shaking, rippling, smacking, hitting, etc. These movements are not stable, nevertheless, most of them follow the horizontal axis.

· “My heart shrinks unspeakably from war and bloodshed” (E.P. Roe. The Earth Trembled, 2018, p.6);

· “Now his heart pounded with anticipation, but also with fear, in the night's heat” (J. Land, Black Scorpion: The Tyrant Reborn, 2015, p.2);

· “The fear that had rippled through her heart throughout her life suddenly disappeared” (K.D. Wooten, Paschal Moon, 2013, p.226);

· “My heart sped up, hammering so hard in my chest that Grover turned and looked <…>” (J.A. Cipriano, Pursuit, 2015, ch.7);

· “My heart was banging in my ears, scared he'd seen me” (K. Kesey, One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest, 2012, p. 160);

· “My heart trembles for fear they have seen us, and heard you” (D. Defoe, The life and adventures of Robinson Crusoe, 2014, p. 378);

· “My heart shakes with fear and misery” (A. Woodborne, The Cry of Hangkaka, 2016, p.117);

· “Thinking about these things as I sat there made my heart flutter, <…>” (D.E. Lee, 2545 Pierce Street, Gary Indiana, 2009, p.202).

· “<…> waves knocked our boat sideways and my heart lurched in fear” (D. Selkirk, The Saturday Evening Post, Our Life on the Water, 2015) Mode of access: https://www.saturdayeveningpost.com/2015/03/life-water/

· “Bedouin heart quaked with fear at the thought of nightclubs <…>”(A. Fagih, 5 Novels, p.343, 2008, p.343);

· “I swallow, my heart tripping” (C. Mooney, Fear the Dark, 2015, ch.17);

Moreover, the heart as a locus of metaphorical conceptualization of fear sometimes “breaks” the boundary between the inner and outer constituents of the human body, reflecting some feeling, which breaks out from the internal state of the body to the external one:

· “My heart jumped out of my chest” (E.J. Ebron. Regress, 2012, p.133);

· “My heart was pounding out of my chest” (J. Henning. Deadly Dreams and Desires, 2005, p.71)

Last but not least, we should take it into account that absence of any heart's movement is also commonly used for fear conceptualization, because in this emotional state people often do not feel their organs functioning properly, which is why it seems that the most important parts of the human body stop working completely.

· “Her heart stopped with fear” (J. Gage, The Wolf and Highlander, 2014, ch.5);

· “The imam felt his heart pause with fear” (J. White, The Abyssinian Proof, 2011, ch.15);

· “Her heart seemed to stall and fear rose to blacken the happiness that <…>” (S. Montefiore, The Beekeeper's Daughter, 2015, p.163)

2) The size and density of the heart

The size and density of the heart play a significant role in the metaphorical conceptualization of fear, because they reflect the inability of the heart to be stable and function appropriately in dangerous situations. In most cases, the authors of the metaphors tend to describe the reduction of the heart's size with the help of various verbs, for instance, cringe, tighten, to be small, clutch, squeeze and etc. Cf:

· “At this point, I thought of the clay idol and my heart tightened with fear” (A.C. Carver. Bamboo Shoots After the Rain, 1993, p.39);

· “Now, when my heart cringes with the fear of losing him, I discuss those feelings with my women friends” (B. Siegel, Sander, AARP Faith, Hope, and Healing: Inspiring Lessons Learned from People, 2011, p.189);

· “Ai, Commandant, my heart's small with fear for you” (W. Steenkamp, The Blockhouse: A Novel of the Anglo-Boer War, 1987, p.61).

· “A brief spasm of fear clutches my heart” (Robin Lafevers, The Triumph, 2013, p.8);

· “<…> begging Father to take away the unreasonable fear that had my heart squeezed in its cruel grip” (S. Bahlmann, Unseen Odds, 2003, p.87).

3) Feeing inside of the heart

The condition of the heart at the moment of fright can be described in different ways, connected to specific phenomenon. These conceptual metaphors show the connection between the emotion domain, which is more vague and complicated to comprehend, and the source domain, which is concrete and similar to something clear from the material world.

The emotional state of fear can cause a specific sensation in the heart described by the words bang, burst or stab, all of them meaning pain or discomfort in the chest.

· “<…> the danger that our hearts would literally burst with fear and dread” (S.D. Kassow, Who Will Write Our History?: Rediscovering a Hidden Archive from the Warsaw, 2018, p.237);

· “West felt his heart explode with fear” (A. Avery, Foxholes and Flashbacks: One Boy's Battle to Survive the Hell of War, 2009, p.59);

· “The word 'communism' struck fear into the hearts of the voting cardinals” (L. Gregoire, Murder in the Vatican: The CIA and the Bolshevik Pontiff, 2013, p.376);

· “The more she looked at it, the more fear stabbed into her heart <…>” (J. Sale, Who's Afraid of the Slenderman?, 2013, ch.2);

· “A sharp fear hit my heart” (A. H. Umwagarwa, Hearts Among Ourselves, 2018, p.46);

Fear can appear as a fire in the heart, which is also connected with the physical condition of this part of the human body.

· “His heart flares in fear” (The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, 2000, p.67);

· “The thought of him in pain made my heart burn with fear” (C. J. Starr, Fallen Star Series, 2017, ch.18);

· “<…> knowing he could probably see that flash of fear” (A. Roberts, St. Piran's: The Brooding Heart Surgeon, 2012, p.171);

Nevertheless, fear is most typically connected with cold and a freezing sensation, which is why a lot of metaphors of fear are connected with such notions as ice, chill, coolness, etc. Numbness and spasm of limbs and body as a whole have their psychological influence on the perception of the inner state of a person, hence, the heart as an inner organ seems to be cold, weighty, chained and callous.

· “<…> and made Quentin's brave heart freeze with fear” (C.K. McKenzie, The Legendary Haunting of Quentin Wallis, 2016, p.68);

· “<…>, and if you blew on my heart cold with fear <…>” (J. A. Crow, Anthology of Spanish Poetry, 1980, p.194);

· “In one split second Kelsey felt all her fears congeal like ice around her heart” (R.T. Cusick, The Lifeguard, 2014, ch.2);

· “<…> when the creeping cold in her body, the icy fingers of fear clutching her heart, <…>” (G. Frank, Institutional Memory, 2018, p.395)

· “My heart was so heavy with fear, panic and sadness” (E.R. O'Lea, Trolls, Snakes and Shadow People, 2014, p.100)

Fear can also be associated with some physical disorders, which people can obtain in some unpleasant and terrifying situations, for instance, the movement of the heart became similar to the stammering disorder.

· “Vicki's heart hiccupped with fear” (L. Scottoline, Devil's Conner, 2010, p.5);

· “Her heart stuttered as she glanced back at the date, about nine months before her birthday” (R.St. Claire, Shiver of Fear, 2011, ch.8).

Last but not least, fear sometimes leads to the cloudiness of the mind and cogitative processes, which is why a person is driven to the state of madness and insanity, and this condition spreads to the other organs of the body.

· “Her shock was so extreme that her heart surged into frantic activity” (M. Walters, The Dark Room, 2011, ch.5);

· “Zachariah shouted, his heart mad with fear” (A. Winkler, The Painted Canoe, 1989, p.84).

4) The heart as a living being, capable of producing sounds

In some texts the heart is described as a living being. It acquires its own voice and ability to express emotions like a real human. These metaphors are based on personification, which gives an inanimate object human abilities and qualities.

· “Her heart cried with fear for him” (C. Cassidy, Special Agent's Surrender, 2011, p.140);

· “their hearts began chanting with fear” (Ms. Magazine, vol.4, 2007, p.30);

· “Her heart screamed with fear and abandonment” (M. J. Murphy, Beneath the Willow, 2018, ch.29);

2.2 The stomach as a locus for the metaphorical conceptualization of fear

The stomach as an organ of the human body also plays one of the most significant roles in the proper functioning of living processes. It is responsible for the process of digestion and further food assimilation. Being indispensable for a person's vitality, it also contributes to the digestion of people's thoughts and emotions. The stomach often becomes an important locus for conceptualization of various feelings (butterflies in one's stomach - feeling of anxiety or joy, stomach is a bag of burning coals - feeling of anxiety, but in more negative sense). Fear is not an exception, indeed, thesaurus of fear conceptual metaphors is abundant with expressions, which include the stomach as a locus of this particular emotion.

Several specific features of the stomach as a locus of metaphorical conceptualization of fear can be identified:

1) The stomach's movements in the state of fear

Similar to the heart, the stomach can move along the vertical and horizontal axes, depending on what state the author of the text wanted to describe. The ascending movement of the stomach is also described with a help of the words jump, rise, stand up, etc.

· “Myra's stomach rose to somewhere just under her heart and hung there, knotted like a wet rag” (S. King, Needful Things, 2018,ch.8);

· “He thought of the horseshoe-shaped bar and his stomach seemed to stand up and spin against his skin” (M. Wexler, J. Hulme, Voices of the Xiled: A Generation Speaks for Itself, 1994, p.68);

· “Her stomach jumped up and crowded her lungs” (S. McKenna, Tasting Fear, 2009, p.188).

In this emotional state people can also feel like their stomach is falling down, being something weighty and lifeless.

· “She spoke in her customary direct way, although her stomach fell in fear at how he might reply” (E. Gilbert, The Signature of All Things, 2013, p.228);

· <…> and my stomach sank in fear (E. Barton, The Testament of Yves Gundron, 2000, p.171);

· “At one point, I felt my stomach collapse and I really knew <…>” (Rev. Case, Reiki Reflections: Sharing the Light, Changing Hearts!, 2016, p.289).

· “My stomach seemed to have come unmoored from the muscles that were supposed to hold it in place” (S. King, 11.22.63, 2011, ch.6);

In several texts these two movements were combined with each other, denoting instability of this organ in the state of fear.

· “Alan felt a sickening lift-drop in his stomach” (S. King, Needful Things: A Novel, 2016, p.683)

Furthermore, as previously said in Section 2.1, some organs tend to move not only in vertical and horizontal directions, but also in curved, zig-zag and circular directions. They highlight restlessness of both åðó inner and åðó outer state of a person.

· “Her stomach twisted, and she saw that Cole had gone white” (H. Graham, Reckless Hearts, 2001, p.598);

· “My stomach turned inside out” (M.R.Borg, Letters to my Mother: a survivor's story, 2009, p.18);

· “<…> and for the first time my stomach lurched with fear” (C. Erickson, The Unfaithful Queen: A Novel of Henry VIII's Fifth Wife, 2012, p.5);

· “<…> stomach tipped over, and she closed her eyes<…>” (K. Rolofson, Somebody's Hero, 1990, p.161);

· “Lyric shut her eyes tightly, her stomach churned in fear” (S. Poole, Adopted by Wolves: The Complete Story, 2012, p.84);

· “<…> and felt his stomach flip over slowly, like an airplane doing a slow roll” (S.King, Salem's Lot, 2008, ch.10)

· My stomach turned over (J.Paull, Through My Eyes: On Becoming a Teacher, 2012, p. 23);

· <…> until my stomach swirled like a whirlpool (T.Parrish, Red Stick Men, 2000, p. 138).

· “Her stomach churned” (R.J. Marley, Druids Foundling, 2009, p.47)

2) The size and consistency of the stomach

The normal condition of the stomach is highly influenced by dangerous and stressful situations in a negative way, because in stressful situations the stomach begins to exude excessive amounts of acid, which is why a person may feel sick. On the psychological level, people tend to believe that their stomach shrinks and functions in an unstable manner. Fear “enchains” the stomach and prevents the biological processes in human body from following their usual course. Moreover, people may feel heaviness in their stomach, comparing this organ with something really heavy and solid.

· “At one instance, his stomach contorted, almost sending a thick rush of vomit over his sharp, black suit” (E.Jackson, A Cause to Kill For, 2004, p.31);

· “Albert's words stunned me and I felt my stomach muscles contract in fear” (E.M. Rhoodie, The real information scandal, 1983, p. 330);

· “I felt my stomach shrink with a stab of fear and pain” (R. Montero, The Delta Function, 1991, p.198);

· Her stomach tightened as her promise to <…> (A. Alexander, The Smuggler Wore Silk, 2014, p.158);

· “His belly seemed to have turned to lead” (S.King, Salem's Lot, 2008, ch. 2)

3) The condition of the stomach

In addition to the already mentioned transformations of the stomach, it is important to point out that the sensation in the stomach while experiencing fear is often compared to a knot, which disturbs proper functioning of this organ.

· “Often, feelings of fear start with a knot in the stomach” (C. Matthews, Fulfilling Your Destiny: Finding Life Purpose, 2012, p.73);

· “<…> tightly wound battle that will tie your stomach in knots!” (B.L. Breininger, The Breeding Ground, 2014, p.7)

4) Fear as a dangerous creature destroying the stomach

Discomfort and painful sensations in the stomach are typical for the emotional state of fear. These feelings are often described as stabbing, cutting, aching and throbbing kinds of pain. Despite the fact that these sensations have their own designations, people tend to compare them with some living beings (animals, dangerous people), who can somehow damage and hurt the state of their organs in various ways: scratch, stub, push, gnaw, etc.; or, on the contrary, relieve their suffering.

· “<…> and fear clawed and raked at her stomach <…> (C. Feehan, Turbulent Sea, 2009, p.216);

· <…> the feeling of fear gnawed at his stomach <…> (W.J. Neville, The Vision, 2012, p.84);

· “I felt a searing pain in my stomach, as if someone had stabbed me <…>” (V. Abdulla, ýR. E. Asher, Wind Flowers: Contemporary Malayalam Short Fiction, 2004, p.191);

· “Rose's stomach seized with fear” (L. Abbot, The Gift of A Child, 2014, p. 264);

· “Fear curled in the pit of my stomach, scratching at my insides with icy claws” (I.Andrews, Gunmetal Magic: A Novel in the World of Kate Daniels, 2012, p.269)

· “Fear grabbed his stomach like a giant claw <…> (R. W. Barker, Marcus the Last Living Roman, 2009, p.308)

· “Fear began wrapping its twisting grip around my stomach” (D.Cabela, Two Hearts, One Passion: Dick and Mary Cabela's Hunting Chronicles, 2005, p. 158).

2.3 Eyes as a locus for the metaphorical conceptualization of fear

Since ancient times the eyes have been considered to be a direct reflection of people's soul, emotions and feelings. The eyes are the mirrors of the soul is a well-known proverb, dating back 06-43 B.C. It is believed that people cannot hide their emotions and real thoughts, because the eyes always reveal the truth. Psychologists and researches in the sphere of cognitive sciences proclaim that it is not just a poetic metaphor, but a well-established fact (Leuker, Jachimowich, 2017). Due to this fact, the eyes are often used for metaphorical conceptualization of various emotions, including fear. In this paper this locus is also subdivided into several subgroups:

1) The colour and brightness of the eyes

In the emotional state of fear authors highlight various specific colours and colour saturation of the eyes, which they acquire due to the effect of fright. This difference between the normal state of the eye and the affected eye can be connected to the physical change of the eye retina and dilating pupils. Most authors tend to describe the eyes in dark and dim colours, because they lose “vitality” and cheerfulness.

· “<…> eyes staring white with fear” (A. A. Attanasio, The Dragon and the Unicorn: The Perilous Order of Camelot, 2011, p.58);

· “<…> his eyes were glazed with fear <…>” (A. E. Pritchard, Zahira's Jihad: Book Three in the St. Martins Series, 2012, p.280);

· “<…> dark soft eyes arched with fear <…> (C. Potok, I Am the Clay: A Novel, 2010, p.359);

· “<…> the man fell quiet and looked suddenly dead-eyed with fear” (B.Anderson, The Magician and the Fool: A Novel, 2008, p.45);

· “<…> her eyes dark with fear” (S. Carroll, The Dark Queen: A Novel, 2005, p.385);

· “<…> Her eyes glow like two coals” (The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, 2008, p.124)

· “Their eyes darken with fear and their little faces turn ashen <…>” (K.Klimo, Centauriad #1: Daughter of the Centaurs, 2012, p. 125).

Nevertheless, some authors use non-standard decisions (original metaphors - explained above) for depicting the eyes in the emotional state of fear, because they describe the yes as burning, flaming and glowing with fear.

· “Her eyes shone with fear” (B. Rozanski, Right Side Talking, 2010, p.131);

· “<…> his eyes blazing with fear <…> (Pigeon Racing News and Gazette, 1972, p.30);

· “<…> her eyes bright with fear <…>” (P.Kidd, Lilith, 2007, p.297);

· “Her eyes were on fire with fear and anger when they met his <…>” (S. Ryan, A Cowboy's Forgiveness, 2017, ch.10);

· “<…> looking for their wild eyes, burning with fear <…>” (G.Stern, The red coal: poems, 1999, p.13);

· “His blue eyes were alight with fear” (M.Truman, Murder at the National Cathedral: A Capital Crimes Novel, 2014, p.82).

2) The size of the eyes

In the emotional state of fear and astonishment, people tend to open their eyes widely, which is why a lot of people use this physical impact in conceptualization of fear.

· “<…> their eyes round with fear <…>” (C. E. Morgan, The Sport of Kings: A Novel, 2016, p. 483);

· “<…> but her eyes were huge with fear <…>” (N.Carrera, Third Strike's the Charm, 2016, ch.8);

· “<…> his eyes widened with fear as he lifted his pistol in panic” (R.Whitworth, Forest of Fear, 2019, p.72).

3) The position of the eyes

Due to the fact that people open their eyes wider than in the normal emotional state, people describe this position of eyes with the help of such words as bulge, fall out, stick out, etc., because they feel that their eyeballs can practically “fall out”.

· “Hadassah's eyes hung onto mine, dark and intense and seeking” (N. N. Rue, Fault Lines, 2009, p.63);

· “Its eyes bulged with fear” (K. Black, Dark Around the Edges, 2007, p. 292);

· “Jeremy's eyes swell with fear” (P.Ember, Wine Runs Deep, 2018, p.174);

· “<…> his eyes bulging with fear <…>” (D.Bostick, The Match: A Novel, 2009, p.14);

· “Her eyes were turgid with fear <…>” (T. Gilliam, ýT. Grisoni, Not the Screenplay to Fear & Loathing in Las Vegas, 1997, p. 197);

· “<…> your eyes bugged out with fear” (J. E. Bright, The Trouble with Twins, 2006, p.153)

4) The eyes as a container for fear

Based on the theory of first proposed by Z. Kövecses (Kövecses, 2003), the eyes can act as a container for fear, which, like a substance, fills this sensory organ. In most cases fear is described as a liquid substance.

· “His eyes filled with fear at my outburst” (J. H. Walker, Inside Your Local Police, 2002, p.130);

· “Her eyes welled with fear” (L. Graham, ýK. Hewitt, ýM. Blake, Harlequin Presents April 2017, 2017, ch.10);

· “Closter's eyes brimmed with fear, but still he persisted in his lies” (E. F. Hughes, The moving finger, 2002, p.80);

· “Haiden's eyes flood with fear as do Porter's” (G. Jullie, Trap of Immortality, 2017, ch.32);

· “His fingers trembled and his eyes poured with fear of the unknown” (Tumblr.com)Social network. Mode of access: https://lovsy-archive.tumblr.com/post/170708297997/picturesque-one-shot;

Nevertheless, some authors describe fear as a solid substance that can be loaded or immersed in the eyes in the state of fear.

· “<…> and eyes loaded with fear and self-loathing” (D.Crawford, ýR. Fischer, One American Boy: The Dolph Crawford Story, 2004, p.3);

· “He slowly tiptoed back eyes burden with fear” (Fanfiction.net)Fiction stories by users. Mode of access: https://www.fanfiction.net/s/3723101/2/my-inner-marauder-Remus-lupin;

· “<…> his claws clutching, his eyes swarming with fear” (W. Strieber, Hybrids, 2011, p.21).

5) Inability of the eyes to function properly

Due to some physical reactions in the state of fright, such as pressure jumps and unstable blood circulation, the eyes cannot sometimes focus on the object or they are obscured by darkness, which is why fear has its power to “blind” a person or impair the ability of vision. This feature is described in various ways in conceptual metaphors.

· “Her legs trembled as she dashed down the slope, so blind with fear that she didn't see <…>” (N.Roberts, Nora Roberts' Calhouns Collection, 2013, p.237);

· “You and I are miles away but eyeless with fear” (poetry Northwest,1998, p.20);

· “His eyes blurred with fear that all of his efforts might be lost” (T. B. Hill, ý Brewster by Name, 1994, p.176);

6) The condition of the eyes

While experiencing fear, the nervous system of a person is in a constant strain, which is why other organs, connected by our nervous system, are also exposed to the influence of this stress, and as a result, people feel tension and pain in their eyes. Furthermore, people observe “absence” of clear view, when they appear to be in the fearful situation.

· “<…> and his brown eyes were jittery with fear” (L.Scottoline, Devil's Corner, 2010, p.3);

· “She is scanning the crowd desperately and her eyes are strained with fear” (The Editors' choice, vol.4, 1987, p.83);

· “he says simply, his eyes tense with fear” (L.Maxwell, Unhooked, 2016, p.237);

· “<…> mouth open, eyes tight with fear <…> (W. Satterthwait, Wall of Glass, 2014, p.111);

· “I stared into rheumy eyes busy with fear <…>” (V. Stiefel, The Dead Stone, 2005, p.78).

· “All I could see was staring eyes, insane with fear or dull and empty <…>” (C.R. Billingsley, The Nazi's Called Me Traitor: - as I Lived It, 2004, p.124)

7) Insanity of vision

Inadequacy of reasoning processes in the state of fright is often reflected in the eyes of a person. This feature is also applied in the conceptualization of fear in metaphors.

· “She looked around, her eyes wild with fear” (A. Bender, Pueblo Survivors: A Family's Journey, 2012, p.61);

· “The boy picked himself up and raced off the platform, his eyes mad with fear” (P. Altman, The Law of the Vultures, 1987, p.15);

· “All I could see was staring eyes, insane with fear or dull and empty <…>” (C.R. Billingsley, The Nazi's Called Me Traitor: - as I Lived It, 2004, p.124);

· “<…> and see his eyes crazy with fear” (J. A. Dunbar, Congo '63, 2007, p.226);

· “<…> back and eyes frantic with fear” (E. Egleston-Hinman, Naya: A Story of the Bighorn Country, 2009, p.222).

2.4 The face as a locus for metaphorical conceptualization of fear

Mimics, colour of face, wrinkles, different facial expressions are some of the features, which give the face one of the most important roles in the perception of emotions in our lives. Functioning of organs, which was described above, is mostly connected with the physiological properties of a human being. However, facial reactions to the ongoing situation depend not only on the physiology, but are strongly preconditioned by culture. The expression of various emotions on the face differs from one country to another. For instance, Russian people are known to express their happiness with the help of a sincere smile, while in the Japanese culture smiles are divided into two types: a social smile, which denotes only respect for unknown people and means no sincere happiness or delight, and an honest smile, present only with their family, relatives and close friends. A smile helps them actually hide their real feeling for another person, in order not to offend him/her with this attitude (Kaunismaa, 2014, p.31).

This discrepancy in nonverbal communication while expressing emotions is of paramount importance for studies of metaphorical conceptualization. Due to the fact that every culture has its own peculiar features of nonverbal communication, people from various countries verbalize and conceptualize these reactions in a different way too, which is why the face as a locus of metaphorical conceptualization of fear is very important and can show how the Anglophone culture differs from others. Moreover, it is important to state that the face reflects outer reactions of our body to various emotional states, which is why a great number of metaphtonomy examples are presented in this locus of metaphorical conceptualization of fear. In this paper, this locus is divided into several categories.

1) The colour of the face

As mentioned above, the colour of the face can also play a significant role in our understanding of the emotional state of a person. In the situation of fright the colour of the face can change rapidly, depending on the circulation of the blood in the body and blood pressure. The white (pale) and red colours appear most frequently, because they reflect the physical reality. However, this research showed that some other unnatural colours were employed in describing the face in the state of fear.

· “As I sat down, my tiny hands shook and my face flushed with fear” (The Princeton Review, College Essays That Made a Difference, 2014, p.213);

· “The little boy's face was white with fear” (V. Vanistan, The 2$ Spring, 2013, p.554);

· “Her face was ash white with fear <…>” (S.Black, Gridlock, 2011, p.234);

· “His sallow face blanches with fear <…>” (M.Eddy, Science and Health: With Key to the Scriptures, 2014, p.363);

· “<…>her eyes red from crying and her cheeks wan with fear <…>” (R. Sheckley, Uncanny Tales: Stories, 2014, p. 147);

· “Mackenzie swallowed, her face pale with fear” (L. Phillips, Star Witness: Faith in the Face of Crime, 2014, p. 60);

· “The boy's attitude changed, his face red with fear” (T. Roy Jackson, The Red Stock Company, 2011, p.29);

· “Rav nodded, his face dark with fear, streaked with tears” (S. Constantine, The Way of Light, 2003, p.127);

· “The pilot, his face grim with fear and concentration, <…>” (H. Coyle, Sword Point,1990, p.311);

· “Gerda is crying; her face green with fear” (Dr. Hildegard Edge, Blitz Daughters, 2016, p. 112);

· “<…> but he saw my face yellow with fear” (M. Hatoum, Orphans of Eldorado, 2010, p.104).

· “A silver-lit face, pinched with fear” (B. M. Wiprud, Sleep with the Fishes: A Novel, 2006, p.58);

· “You would see her face, aflame with fear, <…>” (J.Neugeboren, News from the New American Diaspora, 2009, p.132).

2) Deformation of facial expression

Emotion of fear is known to “distort” the normal facial expression of a person, because it causes constant mimic movements of the face. In stressful situations the face can also suffer cramps and convulsions, which can lead to serious illnesses such as nervous tic.

· “<…> his face puckering with fear” (R. Reid, A Dream of Miracles, 2016, p. 4);

· “A silver-lit face, pinched with fear” (B. M. Wiprud, Sleep with the Fishes: A Novel, 2006, p.58);

· “<…> her pale face contorted with fear and hatred” (K. MacInerney, Brush with Death, 2013, p.304);

· “He looked at her over his shoulder, his face distorted with fear” (C. Feehan, Dark Sentinel, 2018, p. 132);

· “Below him was a face warped with fear, <…>” (Roger A. Naylor, The Cobra Conspiracy, 2009, p.244);

· “<…> I could see her face deformed by fear” (D. Servan-Schreiber, The Instinct to Heal: Curing Depression, Anxiety and Stress Without Drugs, 2005, p.124);

· “Tania face tightened with fear” (S.L. Chidi, Only Trees Live Forever, 2012, p.23);

· “<…> his face cringed with fear” (R. Fredericks, The Enemy Within, 2014, p.94);

· “<…> his face clouded with fear and rage” (S. Barnes, Twelve Days: A Novel, 2017, p.321).

3) Stillness of the facial expression

In the state of fright a person's mimics is tense, which is why one facial expression can “freeze” for a period of time. In the conceptual metaphors fear is represented as a power, which can leave a mark on the face, and one person cannot relax his/her muscles till the situation improves or the fear-triggering object goes away.

· “Kristof's face, etched with fear and distraught realization” (M. Derr, With Pride, 2014, p.136);

· “He flinched, his pale eyes bulging from a face stiff with fear” (A. Nevill, No One Gets Out Alive, 2015, p.280);

· “His face froze with fear as he tumbled back and downwards” (T. Icon, Izz of Zia: The Good the Bad and the Noble, 2014, p.157);

· “As he saw Cornelius' face stiffen with fear <…>” (P. W. Mitsopoulos, Centurion: A Novel of Ancient Rome, 2002, p.194);

· “The redhead turned to look up at him, her face congealed with fear <…>” (M. Jourlet, Windhaven's Bounty, 1981, p.263);

· “<…> light eyes in a face motionless with fear” (S. Bellow, News from the Republic of Letters, 2007, p.24);

· “<…> her face fixed with fear she was trying not to show” (
J. Ashley, White Tiger, 2016, p.158);

· “<…> bloody face taut with fear” (S. Carnegie, Sons of Africa, 2011, p. 308);

4) Fear as a dangerous creature hurting the face

Due to the fact that the face is very susceptible to this emotional state, fear is often represented as a creature, which can leave an ugly imprint, damage, hurt or mutilate it.

· “<…> and smirking at his trembling face ripped with fear and slight anger” (Wattpad.com) Social Story-Telling Platform. Mode of access: https://www.wattpad.com/634755916-the-target-wenrene-iv-refreshers;

· “<…> her father was hunched over her, his face crippled with fear” (C. Bradshaw, Bloody Murder: Two Series Starters, 2015, ch.39);

· “<…> her normally stoic face cut with fear <…>” (M. Pura, Ride the Sky: The Amish of Montana, #1, 2019, ch.10).

2.5 The throat as a locus of metaphorical conceptualization of fear

The throat as an organ has several vital functions for life activity: it is responsible for breathing, voice formation and conduction, which is why the throat as a locus can be viewed from different points of view. Firstly, the throat can be considered as an inner organ and metaphors underline its state within the body of a human. Secondly, the throat can be viewed as the “producer” of voice, and metaphorical source domains can be concentrated on sounding, tone, pitch of voice produced by a person in the situation of fright. Due to this fact, this paper will consider both views of the throat as a locus for conceptualization of fear, starting with the sensation inside the throat.

1) Sensation in the throat

The first category of metaphorical conceptualization in this locus is connected to the feeling in the throat while experiencing some dangerous situations. In most cases, people feel tension in their throats, caused by something that feels like being stuck in the throat, making it narrower and practically impossible to breathe normally. Fear is often compared to a knot, a clot or a lump, because it does not take a lot of space, but prevents a person from breathing and speaking normally.

· “Baylie's throat constricted with fear” (S.Carlisle, Snowbound with Dr. Delectable, 2013, p.142);

· “Her throat is tight with fear” (S.S. Baldwin, What the body remembers, 2000, p.118);

· “<…> he heard Deon say as his own throat closed with fear” (B. Kane, Hannibal: Clouds of War, 2014, p.251);

· “I looked at her and a lump of fear rose in my throat” (Roxanne M., The Heart in My Head, 2014, p.24);

· “The idea of that made Romero's throat squeeze tight until he could barely fill his lungs with air” (T.Curran, Fear Me, 2017, ch.6);

· “A lump gathers in her throat. A swollen clot of fear <…>” (A. Nevill, Banquet for the Damned, 2014, p.26);

· “<…> you listen with a throat tense with fear <…>” (Pressreader.com) Online articles from all the globe. Mode of access: https://www.pressreader.com/uk/daily.../282110632179874 ;

· “She forced the words beyond the knot of fear in her constricting throat” (A.West, Damaso Claims His Heir, 2018, p.126);

· “I swallowed the knot of fear that was lodged in my throat <…>” (R.McKnight, What Kind of Fool, 2012, ch.52);

· “<…> she managed to swallow the large ball of fear lodged in her throat” (N. Roberts, Convincing Alex, 2017, p.130).

2) Shifts in the voice in the situation of fright

Due to various physical changes in the throat in the state of shock and fright, the production of voice and its peculiarities are also influenced by it, which is why a person's voice can significantly differ from the normal one. Authors highlight a huge variety of voice's characteristics such as pitch, tone, vibration of voice, its similarity to animals' vocalizations and others. The most prevalent features and their examples are represented below:

Pitch of voice

Considering personal peculiarities of a person, authors highlight the fact that in dangerous situations some people tend to utter sounds, words or sentences in a lower tone of voice, while others unconsciously raise their voices, reaching the highest note, which is possible for them. The first group of metaphors will focus on the high-pitched voice.

· “her voice high-pitched with fear and panic” (M. Watson, An innocent Man, 1995, p.211);

· “<…> the girl cried, her voice shrill with fear” (S. Andrew, Francesca, 2009, p.111);

· “Her voice was high-pitched, nearly squeaky with fear” (L. K. Hamilton, Nightshade, 2000, p.128);

· “<…> I say, my voice sharpening with fear” (L. Lam, False Hearts, 2016, p.16);

· “There was shouting down the hall, voices raised in fear and protest, <…>” (J.A. Jackson, Badger Games, 2007, p.28);

· “Her voice was thick with contempt. Then it skidded high with fear” (A.Ripley, Scarlett: The Sequel to Margaret Mitchell's Gone with the Wind, 2011, ch.18)

· “I think that she must have spoken that day in a voice edged with fear” (A. Solomon, A Stone Boat: A Novel, 2013, p.207).

Other authors show that some people practically lose their voice, starting to speak in an unnaturally low tone.

· “<…> asked Heckewelder, in a voice low with fear” (Z. Grey, The Western Collection, 2013, ch.25);

· “His voice dropped with fear” (Tumblr.com) Personal Blog. Mode of access: https://girlwhowritesthings.tumblr.com/post/109286684848/warning-reader-is-tortured-nightmares-please.

Moreover, some authors turn to non-standard decisions, describing low-pitched voice in the fearful situations. They compare fear with a heavy substance, which can inevitably pull the object (in this context - voice) down, which is why a person starts speaking with low tone.

· “<…> calling for him in a low voice laden with fear” (L. Tolsma, Remember The Lilies, 2015, p.17).

We can conclude that people tend to speak in a high pitch of voice more frequently, because metaphors, describing this peculiar feature, prevail over metaphors, focusing on the low-pitched one.

Tone and loudness of the voice

Another significant characteristic of the voice is tone and volume of sounds, which are produced in the state of fear. As well as in the classification of voice pitch, a diversity of descriptions, which highlight the opposite features of voice, can be observed. As text material shows, the voice can be loud or quiet, smooth or ragged and harsh and so on.

· “<…> his voice hoarse with fear and disbelief” (R. Taylor, The Waking of Orthlund, 2007, p.155);

· “<…> her voice husky with fear <…>” (O.S.Card, Maps in a Mirror: The Short Fiction of Orson Scott Card, 2009, p.621);

· “He heard a familiar voice, raucous with fear and rage <…>” (R. Taylor, The Waking of Orthlund, 2007, p.276);

· “His voice was thick with fear” (E.J. Attella, The Fourth Watch, 2012, ch.25);

· “His voice is harsh with fear” (T. Shames, The Last Death of Jack Harbin: A Samuel Craddock Mystery, 2014, p.6);

· “Almost gibbering with fear now, <…>” (C. Armstrong, Judge Not, 2017, p.189);

· “The council members murmur with fear” (P. Sarjay, Tongues: The Awakening, 2008, p.49);

· “I whisper with fear <…> ” (L. Wolf, ýM. Christel, Fear No Men, 2011, p.41);

· “Then why do you shuffle and mumble with fear all night?” (E.Zola, ýN. Wright, Therese Raquin, 2006, p.70);

· “Looking down at her daughter, she begins to cry with fear <…>” (L.D. Labastide, Breath of Life Poetry, 2010, p.52);

· “His mouth went cottony with fear, and he started crying” (W. Ecenbarger, Kids for Cash, 2012);

· “<…> who moaned with fear and trembling <…>” (Holden's Dollar Magazine, vol.2, p.594);

Voice vibration

As a result of tension of the vocal cords in the throat, a person's voice in the state of fear may begin to vibrate and sometimes it is hard to pronounce words completely without hesitations. This factor is also selected by many authors for metaphorical conceptualization.

· “The would--be-- brazen voices quivered with fear” (R. Peters, Hell or Richmond: A Novel, 2013, p.37);

· “Timidly, she began singing, her sweet voice cracking with fear” (P.Sloan, Elf: A Juniour Novel, 2003, p.132);

· “<…> make her voice tremble with fear <…>” (R. Pollard, Invisible Pleasures, 2016, p.14);

· “Jacob repeated defiantly, but heard his voice quiver with fear <…>” (B. Sparhawk, Magician, 2018, p.42);

· “<…> feeling my voice shudder with fear” (T.K. Troupe, Wandering Wagon, 2016, p.56);

· “Susie asked, trying not to let her voice shake with fear” (D.Peck, Susie Stories the Lost Avatar, 2009, p.87);

· “The sound was fearsome, yet laced with fear” (R.Earle, Literaryreview.org) An International Journal Of Contemporary Writing. Mode of access: http://www.theliteraryreview.org/fiction/after-apple-picking/

Similarity to animals' sounds

In the state of fright a lot of people practically lose their ability to speak clearly, and authors emphasize this fact by comparing human speech to animals' sounds, produced for various purposes (warning or attraction cry).

· “Shocked into his own language Dr Nagaraj was yapping with fear” (P.Theroux, The Elephanta Suite, 2011, p.108);

· “<…> he whispered, his voice a croak with fear” (P. Neri, This Stolen Moment, 1994, p.291);

· “Babies gurgle with pleasure, scream with pain, and howl with fear” (M. J. Cartledge, Practical Theology: Charismatic and Empirical Perspectives, 2012, p.133);

· “<…> and disappeared into the mist while the boy howled with fear” (R. Kipling, The Complete Mowgli of the Jungle Book Stories, 2015, p.22).

2.6 The head as a locus of metaphorical conceptualization of fear

Despite the fact that analysis of this paper is mostly focused on emotions and feelings of a person in the state of fright, cognitive processes, performed by the brain, are a significant part of human life. Mental abilities and nervous system of a person also play a role in the conceptualization of fear, because they encompass a person's experience, worldview and perceptions, that shape a person's behaviour. Moreover, considering the head as a locus of metaphorical conceptualization, hair can be also included in this classification, because it is also influenced by shocking experience in several ways. Due to this fact the head, which includes the brain, mental abilities and hair, is used frequently for conceptual metaphors.

There are several groups of metaphors, describing the ongoing processes in the brain in the state of fright.

1) Inability of the brain/mind to function properly

In the state of fear a person's metal abilities deteriorate due to the fact that fear causes demolition of nervous cells and skin, which subsequently sends various impulses to the spinal cord and brain. These impulses lead to divergent reactions, one of them being deceleration of mental processes. According to this physiological reaction, numbness of the brain constitutes a substantial count of metaphors, describing the state of the brain in the state of fear.