Phraseology is a scholarly approach to language

Professors Smirnitsky’s, Koonin’s and Vinogradov’s classification of phraseological units. The activities of the European Society of Phraseology and for lexicography with their regular conventions and publications attest to the interest in phraseology.

Рубрика Иностранные языки и языкознание
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Язык английский
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Kyrgyz Russian Slavic University

Theory and Practice of the English language and Intercultural Communication department

Control work

Phraseology is a scholarly approach to language

Mishenina Anastasiya

Bishkek 2014

Introduction

Phraseology (from Greek цсЬуйт phrasis, "way of speaking" and -лпгЯб -logia, "study of") is a scholarly approach to language which developed in the twentieth century. It took its start when Charles Bally's, who was a French linguist, notion of locutions phraseologiques entered Russian lexicology and lexicography in the 1930s and 1940s and was subsequently developed in the former Soviet Union and other Eastern European countries. From the late 1960s on it established itself in (East) German linguistics but was also sporadically approached in English linguistics. The earliest English adaptations of phraseology are by Weinreich within the approach of transformational grammar, Arnold, and Lipka. In Great Britain as well as other Western European countries, phraseology has steadily been developed over the last twenty years. The activities of the European Society of Phraseology (EUROPHRAS) and the European Association for Lexicography (EURALEX) with their regular conventions and publications attest to the prolific European interest in phraseology. Bibliographies of recent studies on English and general phraseology are included in Welte and specially collected in Cowie & Howarth whose bibliography is reproduced and continued on the internet and provides a rich source of the most recent publications in the field [20].

1. Phraseology

Phraseology is a branch of lexicology studying phrase logical units: set expressions, or idioms (in foreign linguistics). Phraseological units differ from free word-groups semantically and structurally: 1) they convey a single concept and their meaning is idiomatic, i.e. it is not a mere total of the meanings of their components 2) they are characterized by structural invariability (no word can be substituted for any component of a phraseological unit without destroying its sense (a drop in the bucket (not jar or pot). The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words but also by phrase logical units. Phrase logical units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech; they exist in the language as ready-made units. They are compiled in special dictionaries. The same as words phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. American and British lexicographers call such units «idioms» [18; 295].

Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning.

1.1 Professor Smirnitsky's classification of phraseological units

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He points out two-top units which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes. Among one-top units he points out three structural types:

a) units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to art up, to back up, to straight out, to snatch up, to get up [12; 42-43];

b) units of the type «to be tired». Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositions with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions «by» or «with». There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of the type «to be young», e.g. to be akin to, to be aware of etc. The difference between them is that the adjective «young» can be used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative. In these units the verb is the grammar centre and the second component is the semantic centre, e.g. to be glad to, to be surprised at, to be tired of, and to be interested in [5; 110-113];

c) prepositional - nominal phraseological units. These units are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, that are why they have no grammar centre, their semantic centre is the nominal part, e.g. on the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course of, on the stroke of, on the point of, in time [1; 106]. In the course of time such units can become words, e.g. tomorrow, instead etc.

Among two-top units A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:

a) attributive-nominal such as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round one's neck and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other cases the second component is idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind alley, bed of nail, shot in the arm or sweet sugar [22];

b) verb-nominal phraseological units, e.g. to read between the lines, to carry coals to Newcastle [13; 168]. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.g. to fall in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic centre, e.g. not to know the ropes. These units can be perfectly idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one's boats, to vote with one's feet, to take to the cleaners';

Very close to such units are word-groups of the type to have a glance, to have a smoke. These units are not idiomatic and are treated in grammar as a special syntactical combination, a kind of aspect, e.g. to have one's hands full [6; 95];

c) phraseological repetitions, such as: now or never, part and parcel. little by little, on and on [22]. Such units can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs, in or out, back and forth [21]; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.g. cakes and ale, as busy as a bee.

Phraseological units the same as compound words can have more than two tops (stems in compound words), e.g. to take a back seat, a peg to hang a thing on, lock, stock and barrel, to be a shadow of one's own self, at one's own sweet will, give the pigeons a fit, worm in the apple [9;4].

1.2 Professor Koonin's classification of phraseological units

A.V. Koonin classified phrase logical units according to the way they are formed. He pointed out primary and secondary ways of forming phraseological units.

Primary ways of forming phrase logical units are those when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word-group:

a) Most productive in Modern English is the formation of phraseological units by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups, e.g. in cosmic technique we can point out the following phrases: «launching pad» in its terminological meaning is «стартовая площадка», in its transferred meaning - «отправной пункт», «to link up» - «cтыковаться, стыковать космические корабли» in its transformed meaning it means -«знакомиться», «troglodyte» - «подвид человека» in its transformed meaning it means «дикарь» [11; 149];

b) a large group of phraseological units was formed from free word groups by transforming their meaning, e.g. «granny farm» - «пансионат для престарелых», «Troyan horse» - «компьюторная программа, преднамеренно составленная для повреждения компьютера», «Miss Quicksilver» - «as fast as Mercury» [10; 5];

c) phraseological units can be formed by means of alliteration. e.g. «a sad sack» - «несчастный случай», «culture vulture» - «человек, интересующийся искусством», «fudge and nudge» - «уклончивость», «tish&pish» - «blimey» [3; 8];

d) they can be formed by means of expressiveness, especially it is characteristic for forming interjections, e.g. «My aunt!», « Hear, hear!», « Holy mackerel» [8; 214];

e) they can be formed by means of distorting a word group, e.g. «odds and ends» was formed from «odd ends»;

f) they can be formed by using archaisms, e.g. «in brown study» means «in gloomy meditation» where both components preserve their archaic meanings;

g) they can be formed by using a sentence in a different sphere of life, e.g. «that cock won't fight» can be used as a free word-group when it is used in sports (cock fighting), it becomes a phraseological unit when it is used in everyday life, because it is used metaphorically;

h) they can be formed when we use some unreal image, e.g. «to have butterflies in the stomach» - «испытывать волнение», «to have green fingers» - »преуспевать как садовод-любитель»;

i) they can be formed by using expressions of writers or in everyday life, e.g. «corridors of power» (Snow), «locust years», «the winds of change», «American dream» [7; 216].

Secondary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a phrase logical unit is formed on the basis of another phrase logical unit; they are:

a) conversion, e.g. «to vote with one's feet» was converted into «vote with one's feet»;

b) changing the grammar form, e.g. «Make hay while the sun shines» is transferred into a verbal phrase - «to make hay while the sun shines»;

c) analogy, e.g. «Curiosity killed the cat» was transferred into «Care killed the cat»;

d) contrast, e.g. «cold surgery» - «a planned before operation» was formed by contrasting it with «acute surgery», «thin cat» - «a poor person» was formed by contrasting it with «fat cat»;

e) shortening of proverbs or sayings e.g. from the proverb «You can't make a silk purse out of a sow's ear» by means of clipping the middle of it the phraseological unit «to make a sow's ear» was formed with the meaning «ошибаться»;

f) borrowing phraseological units from other languages, either as translation loans, e.g. « living space» (German), « to take the bull by the horns» ( Latin) or by means of phonetic borrowings «blanche» (French), «corpse d'elite» (French), «sotto voce» (Italian), «prima-donna» (Italian) [4; 50] [19; 343].

1.3 Professor Vinogradov's classification of phraseological units

Phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning.

This classification was suggested by academic V.V. Vinogradov for Russian phraseological units.

He pointed out three types of phraseological units:

a) fusions- where the degree of motivation is very low, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components, they are highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages, e.g. on Shank's mare - (on foot), at sixes and sevens - (in a mess); phraseological fusions represent the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties, e.g. Once in a blue moon - very seldom; to cry for the moon - to demand unreal; under the rose - quietly, ne-er-do-well - a person who cannot succeed in any endeavor [14;190], behind one's back - without knowledge [16; 123];

b) unities where the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical), e.g. to play the first fiddle (to be a leader in something), old salt (experienced sailor) etc; this meaning is formed as a result of generalized figurative meaning of a free word-combination. It is the result of figurative metaphoric reconsideration of a word-combination, e.g. to come to one's sense -to change one's mind; to come home - to hit the mark; to fall into a rage - to get angry, a warm in the apple - creature that destroys the environment in which it lives [15; 127];

c) collocations where words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages, e.g. cash and carry - (self-service shop), in a big way (in great degree) etc. Phraseological combinations contain one component used in its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively. To make an attempt - to try; bad-mouthed - criticize (someone or something), to make haste - to hurry; to offer an apology - to beg pardon [17; 343].

phraseology lexicography koonin vinogradov

Biblography

1. Ferris S. Tish&Pish. How to be of a speakingness like Stephen Fry. - Great Britain, 2005. - p. 106

2. Ferris S. Tish&Pish. How to be of a speakingness like Stephen Fry. - Great Britain, 2005. - p. 98

3. Ferris S. Tish&Pish. How to be of a speakingness like Stephen Fry. - Great Britain, 2005. - p. 8.

4. Kral T. Being people. A&P. - p. 50.

5. Kral T. Being people. Bridging. - p. 110-113.

6. Kral T. Being people. Charles. - p. 95.

7. Kral T. Being people. Miss America. - p. 216.

8. Kral T. Being people. Miss America. - p.214.

9. Kral T. Being people. Raymond's run. - p. 4.

10. Kral T. Being people. Raymond's run. - p. 5.

11. Kral T. Being people. The Kegelmass episode. - p. 149

12. Kral T. Being people. The man who was almost a man. - p. 42-43.

13. Kral T. Being people. The secret life of Walter Mitty. - p. 168.

14. Kral T. Being people. The spell. - p. 190.

15. Kral T. Being people. The worm in the apple. - p. 127.

16. Kral T. Being people. Why I live at the P.O. - p. 123.

17. Vinogradov V.V. The main types of phraseological units in the Russian language. Selected Works. Lexicology and lexicography. - M., 1977. - p.140-161.

18. Арнольд И.В. Лексикология современного англ. языка: [Учеб. для ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз.]. - 3-е изд., перераб. и доп. - М.: Высш. шк., 1986. - 295 с.

19. Кунин А.В. Английская фразеология. (Теорет. курс.) М., «Высшая школа», 1970. - 343 с.

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