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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

1 THE MAIN ASPECTS OF SLANG

1.1 The origin of slang

1.2 The problem of definition

1.3 The formation of slang words

1.4 The sources of modern slang

2 THE USE OF SLANG

2.1 Different kinds of slang

2.2 The stylistic use of slang

2.2.1 The use of slang in the dictionary

2.2.2 The use of slang in emotive prose

2.2.3 The comparison of slang words usage in the dictionary and emotive prose

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

The theme of the present work is slang.

Nowadays English is worth not just knowing but it is worth really knowing. We do not live behind the "iron curtain" any more. There is a great importance to understand up-to-date English. English is the chief language of international business and academic conferences, and the leading language of international tourism. English is the main language of popular music, advertising, home computers and video games. Most of the scientific, technological and academic information in the world is expressed in English. International communication expends very fast. The English language becomes the means of international communication, the language of trade, education, politics, and economics. People have to communicate with each other. It is very important for them to understand foreigners and be understood by them. In this case the English language comes to be one but very serious problem. A word comes to be a very powerful means of communication but also can be a cause of a great misunderstanding if it is not clearly understood by one of the speakers.

The understanding of the native speakers' language is the international problem for our students. Our secondary schools teach the students only the bases of the English language. Our universities do not prepare them to the American streets, accommodations, pubs where American teenagers use their own language, the language that differs from that of their parents. They use other words they use slang. None of the most advanced and flexible ways of teaching English of any country can catch modern quickly developing English. But our educational system is at the very end. Now it is well known that none of the Americans speak English we study.

Some scholars divide the English language into two different languages: the Standard English language and slang. This fact proves that slang comes to be a very numerous part of English. Slang covers a lot of drawbacks of the English language and it is one-third part of the colloquial speech.

There are a lot of debates about this phenomenon. Most of the teachers consider slang to be the vulgar part of the language. They state that only the uneducated part of the Americans uses slang words. It results into consideration that slang is not worth studying at all.

Ignorance of slang causes a great miscommunication between students and native speakers. All this gives the sense for asking the following question: “Is it worth studying English for many years in order to understand none of the words of the native speaker?"

The language of the previous centuries contrasts from the modern language. The life does not freeze in the same position. It always develops. And it makes the language develop too.

But almost none of us know even a few slang words. That is why the present work is devoted to this social phenomenon.

The objective of the work is an attempt to study all the aspects of slang, the cases of its usage and to analyze the frequency of slang words usage referring to different social groups in various sources.

To achieve the set aim we determine the following tasks:

1. to search the origin of slang;

2. to study the words' transition through English vocabulary;

3. to study the problem of the definition of slang;

4. to understand the aim of the modern usage of slang;

5. to distinguish different kinds of slang;

6. to study the ways of slang words formation;

7. to analyze literary sources for the presence of slang words referring to

different social groups;

8. to analyze dictionaries for the presence of slang words referring to

different social groups;

9. to compare the results of the analysis.

For writing the present paper a number of scientific sources devoted to the problem of slang have been analyzed. As the material for our research we used slang words taken from dictionaries and fiction.

For gaining the mentioned aim we used the following methods:

descriptive;

observation;

critical study of scientific literature;

comparison and contrast;

distribution;

statistic.

The present work consists of the following parts: Introduction, two chapters, Conclusion and Bibliography. Bibliography comprises 28 sources in English and Russian.

1 THE MAIN ASPECTS OF SLANG

1.1 The origin of slang

The origin of slang is uncertain. It is not really a language since the words spoken are clearly English; on the other hand, it's not a dialect either, since the speakers of this slang are also perfectly capable of not using it /1/.

Slang is believed to have come to prominence in the early to mid 1800's. It is frequently suggested that it began its life as a tongue of the street trader, the costermongers, perhaps in an attempt to conceal their often-illicit practices from the public or more importantly any illegal activities from the recently established police force, the Peelers. It may well have begun its evolution many years before then. Another area of speculation is how from being such a localized dialect it gained so much prominence; the suggestion here is that slang was adopted by the underworld. It was the necessity of the police to learn this criminal language and by its subsequent publication in law enforcement manuals slang became widely known /2/.

Some stories go that slang originated in the market place so that the vendors could communicate without the customers knowing what was being said - you wouldn't want your customers knowing that you were going to lower your prices in ten minutes so you could go home early. Other stories have it that it originated in the prisons so that inmates could talk without the guards listening in /2/.

But the scientists consider slang to originate from the Standard English language itself. Speaking of standards, the most respected standard dialect was Received Pronunciation. This kind of speech was considered Standard English and was used in teaching English in all parts of the world. But very soon American English went forward leaving British, Australian and Canadian one far behind. It came to be the most developed one. This can be explained with the partaking of almost all of the dwellers of Europe in the enriching the American English word-stock. But the rest countries of Europe were inhabited by the British people. As a result, the more or less Standard English was preserved there.

The lowest class of people immigrated from England and Ireland to the Northern states of America. The English language was replaced to the position of the official language. In the 18^th century the Yankees parted from Britain and the settlements of the other nationalities came there. The English phonetics was very complicated for them and the foreigners simplified some words.

In 1930-s, 40-s, 50-s thanks to the music and cinema the intensive export of words and word-expressions from America to Europe took place. During 60-s this process turned into many-sided phenomenon. Any word that happened to come from the lips of the favorite rock-musician, of the popular actor or actress was picked up by teenagers. Some of the words entered the everyday use but the rest superannuated. This process proceeded during 70-s and 80-s when a great number of new words appeared. A great quantity of shortenings waved Europe /3/.

Recorded slang emerged, as the sketch of dictionaries has shown, from the special language of subculture, or perhaps should call the more despised of them “undercultures” /4:3/.

Among the immigrant-ethnic bestowals, the influx from Yiddish continued strong in spite of the sociological shifting of the Jewish population. The Old Dutch and German sources dried up. The Italian carried on in modest proportion. The Hispanic was surprisingly uninfluential, although a heavier contribution is surely predictable. All these were far outstripped by increased borrowing from black America and this from the urban ghetto rather than the old Southern heartland /5:8/. Close analysis would probably show that, what with the prominence of black people in the armed forces, in music, in the entertainment world, and in street and ghetto life, the black influence on American slang was more pervasive than that of any other ethnic group in history. The post-War period was characterized by the speeded process of the social life that traced the language but the rock'n'roll brought up to the surface of Standard English the language of the lowest society and spread it over Atlantic. A lot of terms were introduced by the influx of the other cultures. The resulting mishmash created what academics call “slang” /3/.

The origin of the word “slang” itself is unknown. Its resemblance in sound and figurative meaning to the noun and verb “sling” and the occurrence of apparently the same root in Scandinavian expressions referring to language, suggest that the term “slang” is a development of a Germanic root from which the current English “sling” is derived. Another conjecture is that “slang” has been formed by shortening from genitive phrases like beggars' language or rogues' language, in which the genitive suffix of the first noun attaches to the initial syllable of language and then the final syllable is lost /6:5/.

To fully understand slang, one must remember that a word's use, popularity, and acceptability can change. Words can change in social level, moving in any direction. Thus, some standard words of William Shakespeare's days are found only in certain modern-day British dialects or in the dialect of the southern United States. Words that are taboo in one era (e.g., stomach, thigh) can become accepted, standard words in a later era. Language is dynamic, and at any given time hundreds, and perhaps thousands, of words and expressions are in the process of changing from one level to another, of becoming more acceptable or less acceptable, of becoming more popular or less popular.

Slang is the words so frequently appearing in lively everyday speech and just as quickly disappearing from the language.

Slang invades the dominant culture as it seeps out of various subcultures. Some words fall dead or lie dormant in the dominant culture for long periods. Others vividly express an idea already latent in the dominant culture and these are immediately picked up and used. Before the advent of mass media, such terms invaded the dominant culture slowly and were transmitted largely by word of mouth. Thus a term like snafu, its shocking power softened with the explanation "situation normal, all fouled up," worked its way gradually from the military in World War II by word of mouth (because the media largely shunned it) into respectable circles. Today, however, a sportscaster, news reporter, or comedian may introduce a lively new word already used by an in-group into millions of homes simultaneously, giving it almost instant currency. For example, the term uptight was first used largely by criminal narcotic addicts to indicate the onset of withdrawal distress when drugs are denied. Later, because of intense journalistic interest in the drug scene, it became widely used in the dominant culture to mean anxiety or tension unrelated to drug use. It kept its form but changed its meaning slightly /7:861/.

The events taking place in 60's and 70's developed Europe into more democratic, more perfect and free one. Thanks to the favorite music-groups a great number of new words and idioms entered the English language. And the words considered to be slang yesterday, are turned to be a norm today.

“Slang emanates from conflicts in values, sometimes superficial, often fundamental. When an individual applies language in a new way to express hostility, ridicule, or contempt, often with sharp wit, he may be creating slang, but the new expression will perish unless it is picked up by others. If the speaker is a member of a group that finds that his creation projects the emotional reaction of its members toward an idea, person, or social institution, the expression will gain currency according to the unanimity of attitude within the group. A new slang term is usually widely used in a subculture before it appears in the dominant culture” /8/. Thus slang-e.g. "sucker," "honkey," "shave-tail," "jerk"--expresses the attitudes, not always derogatory, of one group or class toward the values of another. Slang sometimes stems from within the group, satirizing or burlesquing its own values, behavior, and attitudes; e.g., "shotgun wedding," "cake eater," "greasy spoon."

But in such an “idiomatic language” as English, slang is worth being treated more accurately, especially the groups of words, which were considered to be slang 30 and more years ago.

Slang is most popular when its imagery develops incongruity bordering on social satire. Every slang word, however, has its own history and reasons for popularity. When conditions change, the term may change in meaning, be adopted into the standard language, or continue to be used as slang within certain enclaves of the population. Nothing is flatter than dead slang. In 1910, for instance, "Oh you kid" and "23-skiddoo" were quite stylish phrases in the U.S. but they have gone with the hobble skirt. Children, however, unaware of anachronisms, often revive old slang under a barrage of older movies rerun on television /9/.

Some slang words become respectable when they lose their edge; "spunk," "fizzle," "spent," "hit the spot," "jazz," "funky," and "p.o.'d," once thought to be too indecent for feminine ears, are now familiar words. Some slang items have long lives. Thus, bones as slang for dice was used by Chaucer in the 14c and is still slang. These words must have been uttered as slang long before appearing in print, and they have remained slang ever since. But when slang items remain in the language for years, they often lose their slang status. Middle English bouse (now booze) persists in informal context, as does pooped (exhausted), first attested in the 16c. Still other slang items pass into the general vocabulary and bear little or no association with their earlier lives as slang: for example, jeopardy from gambling and crestfallen from cockfighting have even acquired a learned tinge. Many words enter general slang from the taboo words of subcultures. Through increased use and broad application, they can lose their shock value and become more positive; the verb jam a century ago had specific sexual referents, but now means “to dance, play music, have a good time, succeed”. Yet many words in slang remain negative, especially the large and constantly replenished set of epithets available at all time in slang: for example, the pejorative boob, dork, dweeb, jerk, nerd, scuzbag, slimeball, wimp. Normally, slang has both a high birth and death rate in the dominant culture, and excessive use tends to dull the luster of even the most colorful and descriptive words and phrases. The rate of turnover in slang words is undoubtedly encouraged by the mass media, and a term must be increasingly effective to survive.

Let's imagine American English as a huge city and the words its dwellers. Slang is the block for poor citizens. Americans call this block a “skid row”. The dwellers of these blocks leave for the more prestigious ones. Some of them make much money and turn into the successful businessmen. They are the representatives of the higher society. Just the same situation can be observed with slang. A great number of new words came to the English language. Some of the words entered the everyday use but some of them perished. In ten or fifteen years a part of these words was considered to be the literary norm but the rest left to be slang /3:14/.

A slang expression may suddenly become widely used and as quickly die (23-skiddoo). It may become accepted as standard speech, either in its original slang meaning (bus from omnibus, skyscrapers, taxi, movies, piano, phone, pub mob, dandy) or with an altered, possibly tamed meaning (jazz, which originally had sexual connotations). Some expressions have persisted for centuries as slang (booze for alcoholic beverage). In the 20th century, mass media and rapid travel have speeded up both the circulation and the demise of slang terms. Television and novels have turned criminal cant into slang (five grand for $5000). Changing social circumstances may stimulate the spread of slang. Drug-related expressions (such as pot and marijuana) were virtually a secret jargon in the 1940s; in the 1960s they were adopted by rebellious youth; and in the 1970s and '80s they were widely known. But this must be done by those whose mother tongue is English. They and only they, being native speakers of the English language, are its masters and lawgivers. It is for them to place slang in its proper category by specifying its characteristic features.

Many words formerly labeled as slang have now become legitimate units of the Standard English. Thus, the word “kid” (=child), which was considered low slang in the 19^th century, is now a legitimate colloquial unit of the English literary language.

It sounds unbelievable but not so long ago the words: of course, to take care, OK, to get up, lunch were considered to be slang. “Lunch” entered the language after World War I is not used in some books that prefer “dinner” to “lunch”.

Some books still ignore “OK”. This word came into use in 30's and was borrowed by the other countries of the world. But the linguists treated this abbreviation to be the pure slang and avoided using it for a long time. Some don't use it nowadays. Americans consider this word to be the ordinary one. Just the same must be said about the other words and word-expressions that are treated as vulgar ones.

The word “OK” or okay is familiar to each human being of the world. It is made with fingers and reminds the letters “K” and “O”. “OK” entered the German and other languages long ago. But what is the origin of “OK”? The people from Oklahoma state that this word originated from the shorten name of their state. But the most reasonable theory, that the word “OK” roots the phrase “all correct”. The English word “correct” begins with “C” but one German signed all the documents with “OK” meaning “all korrect” with “K”. The people dealing with him got accustomed to this sign.

“OK” has several meanings:

1. welcome;

2. I'm healthy;

3. all right;

4. good.

“OK” is still avoided to be used in business letters though it appears in quite serious newspapers. It needs some time to come into business use.

Such words should not be used in print till they have become so familiar that there is not the slightest temptation to dress them up in quotation marks. Though they are the most easily detected, they are also the best slang; when the time comes, they take their place in the language as words, die away uselessly after a brief popularity.

Some linguists, when characterizing the most conspicuous features of slang, point out that it requires continuous innovation. It never grows stale. If a slang word or phrase does become stale, it is replaced by a new slangism. It is claimed that this satisfies the natural desire for fresh, newly created words and expressions, which are to be the utterances with emotional color and a subjective evaluation. Indeed, it seems to be in correspondence with the traditional view of English conservatism, that a special derogative term should have been coined to help preserve the “purity of standard English” by hindering the penetration into it of undesirable elements. The point is that the heterogeneous nature of the term serves as a kind of barrier, which checks the natural influx of word coinage into the literary language. True, such barriers are not without their advantage in polishing up the literary language. This can be proved by the progressive role played by any conscious effort to sift innovations, some of which are indeed felt to be unnecessary, even containing elements in the body of the language. In this respect the American newspapers may serve as an example of how the absence of such a sifting process results in the contamination of the literary tongue of the nation with ugly redundant coinages. Such a barrier, however, sometimes turns into an obstacle, which hinders the natural development of the literary language.

Slang fills a necessary niche in all languages, occupying a middle ground between the standard and informal words accepted by the general public and the special words and expressions known only to comparatively small social subgroups. It can serve as a bridge or a barrier, either helping both old and new words that have been used as "insiders' " terms by a specific group of people to enter the language of the general public or, on the other hand, preventing them from doing so. Thus, for many words, slang is a testing ground that finally proves them to be generally useful, appealing, and acceptable enough to become standard or informal. For many other words, slang is a testing ground that shows them to be too restricted in use, not as appealing as standard synonyms, or unnecessary, frivolous, faddish, or unacceptable for standard or informal speech. For still a third group of words and expressions, slang becomes not a final testing ground that either accepts or rejects them for general use but becomes a vast limbo, a permanent holding ground, an area of speech that a word never leaves /10/. Thus, during various times in history, American slang has provided cowboy, blizzard, okay, racketeer, phone, gas, and movie for standard or informal speech. It has tried and finally rejected conbobberation (disturbance), krib (room or apartment), lucifer (match), tomato (girl), and fab (fabulous) from standard or informal speech. It has held other words such as bones (dice), used since the 14th century, and beat it (go away), used since the 16th century, in a permanent grasp, neither passing them on to standard or informal speech nor rejecting them from popular, long-term use.

1.2 The problem of definition

In linguistics, where definitions at best are often imprecise and leaky, that of slang is especially notorious. The problem is one of complexity, such that a definition satisfying to one person or authority would seem inadequate to another because the prime focus is different. Like the proverbial blind men describing an elephant, all correctly, none sufficiently, we tend to stress one aspect or another of slang /11/.

There is hardly any other term that is as ambiguous and obscure as the term slang. Slang seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day English.

Much has been said and written about it. This is probably due to the uncertainty of the concept itself. No one has yet given a more or less satisfactory definition of the term. Nor has it been specified by any linguist who deals with the problem of the English vocabulary.

“The first thing that strikes the scholars is the fact that no one European language has singled out a special layer of vocabulary and named it slang, though all of them distinguish such group of words as jargon, cant and the like. Why was it necessary to invent a special term for something that has not been clearly defined as jargon or can't have? Is this phenomenon specifically English? Has slang any special features, which no other group within the non-literary vocabulary can lay, claim to? The distinctions between slang and other groups of unconventional English, though perhaps subtle and sometimes difficult to grasp, should nevertheless be subjected to a more detailed linguistic specification”/12:68/.

Slang is informal, nonstandard words and phrases, generally shorter lived than the expressions of ordinary colloquial speech, and typically formed by creative, often witty juxtapositions of words or images. Slang can be contrasted with jargon (technical language of occupational or other groups) and with argot or cant (secret vocabulary of underworld groups), but the borderlines separating these categories from slang are greatly blurred, and some writers use the terms cant, argot, and jargon in a general way to include all the foregoing meanings /13/.

Webster's “Third New International Dictionary” gives the following definition of the term:

Slang:

1. Language peculiar to a particular group as:

a) the special and often secret vocabulary used by a class (as thieves, beggars) and usually felt to be vulgar or inferior: argot;

b) the jargon used by or associated with a particular trade, profession, or field of activity.

2. A non-standard vocabulary composed of words and senses characterized primary by connotations of extreme informality and usually a currency not limited to a particular region and composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily changed words, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced or facetious figures of speech, or verbal novelties usually experiencing quick popularity and relatively rapid decline into disuse.

The “New Oxford English Dictionary” defines slang as follows:

a) the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of a low or disreputable character; language of a low and vulgar type;

b) the cant or jargon of a certain class or period;

c) language of a highly colloquial type considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense.”

As it is seen from these quotations slang is represented both as a special vocabulary and as a special language. This is the first thing that causes confusion. If this is a certain lexical layer, than why should it be given the rank of language or a dialect of even a patois, then it should be characterized not only by its peculiar use of words but also by phonetic, morphological and syntactical peculiarities.

J.B. Greenough and C.L. Kitteridge define slang in the following way:

“Slang… is a peculiar kind of vagabond language, always hanging on the outskirts of legitimate speech but continually straying or forcing its way into the most respectable company.”

Another definition of slang, which is worth quoting, is one made by Eric Partridge, the eminent student of the non-literary language.

“Slang is much rather a spoken than a literary language. It originates, nearly always, in speech. To coin a term on a written page is almost inevitably to brand it as a neologism which is either be accepted or become a nonce-word (or phrase), but, except in the rarest instances, that term will not be slang”/14/.

In most of the dictionaries slang is used as convenient stylistic notation for a word or a phrase that cannot be specified more exactly. The obscure etymology of the term itself affects its use as a stylistic notation. Whenever the notation appears in a dictionary it may serve as an indication that the unit presented is non-literary, but not pinpointed. That is the reason why the various dictionaries disagree in the use of this term when applied as a stylistic notation.

Any new coinage that has not gained recognition and therefore has not yet been received into Standard English is easily branded as slang /15/.

The different and heterogeneous phenomena united under the vague term slang cause natural confusion and do not encourage scholars to seek more objective criteria in order to distinguish the various stylistic layers of the English colloquial vocabulary. The confusion is made still deeper by the fact that any word or expression apparently legitimate, if used in an arbitrary, fanciful or metaphorical sense, may easily be labeled as slang /16/.

The term “slang” which is widely used in English linguistic science should be clearly specified if it is to be used as a term, i.e. it is should refer to some definite notion and should be definable in explicit, simple terms. It is suggested that the term “slang” should be used for those forms of the English vocabulary which are either mispronounced or distorted in some way phonetically, morphologically or lexically. The term “slang” should be also used to specify some elements, which may be called over-colloquial. As for the other groups of words hitherto classified as slang, they should be specified according to the universally accepted classification of the vocabulary of the language /17/.

Slang is nothing but a deviation from the established norm at the level of the vocabulary of the language. V.V. inogradov writes that one of the tasks set before the branch of linguistic science that is now called stylistics, is a thorough study of all changes in vocabulary, set phrases, grammatical constructions, their functions, an evaluation of any breaking away from the established norm, and classification of mistakes and failures in word coinage /12/.

Some scholars define standard slang, the slang that is common to all those who, though employing received standard in their writing and speech, also use an informal language which, in fact, is no language but merely a way of speaking, using special words and phrases in some special sense. The most confusing definition of the nature of slang is the following one given by Partridge: “…personality and one's surroundings (social or occupational) are the two co-efficients, the two chief factors, the determining causes of the nature of slang, as they are of language in general and of style.”

According to this statement one may get the idea that language, style and slang all have the same nature, the same determining causes /16/. Personality and surroundings determine:

· nature of the slang used by a definite person;

· nature of the language he uses;

· kind of style he writes.

There is a general tendency in England and to some extent in the US to over-estimate the significance of slang by attaching to it more significance than it deserves. Slang is regarded as the quintessence of colloquial speech and therefore stands above all the laws of grammar. Though it is regarded by some purists as a language that stands below standard English, it is highly praised nowadays as “vivid”, “more flexible”, “more picturesque”, “richer in vocabulary” and so on /18/.

Unwittingly one arrives at the idea that slang, as used by English and Americans, is a universal term for any word or phrase which, though not yet recognized as standard English, has won general recognition as a fresh innovation quite irrespective of its nature: whether it is cant, jargon, dialect, jocular or pure colloquialism. It is therefore important, for the sake of a scientific classification of the English vocabulary, to make a more exact discrimination between heterogeneous elements in vocabulary, no matter how difficult it may be /19/.

It is suggestive that there is a tendency in some modern dictionaries to replace the label “slang” by informal or colloquial. Such a practice clearly manifests the dissatisfaction of some lexicographers with the term “slang”. This is mainly due to the ambiguity of the term /1/.

On the other hand, some lexicographers, as has already been pointed out, still make use of the term “slang” as a substitute for “jargon”, “cant”, “colloquialism”, “professionalism”, “vulgar”, “dialectal”. Thus, in his dictionary Professor Barnhart gives the label “slang” to such innovations as “grab - to cause, to react; to make an impression on”, which should be classified as newspaper jargon; “grass or pot - marijuana”, which are positively cant words (the quotation that follows proves it quite unambiguously), “groove - something very enjoyable”, “grunt - US military slang”, which in fact is professionalism; “guppy tummy, British slang - a common intestinal upset experienced by travelers”, which is a colloquialism; “hangup - a psychological or emotional problem”, which is undoubtedly a professionalism, which has undergone extension of meaning and now, according to Barnhart also means “any problem or difficulty, especially one that causes annoyance or irritation.”

The use of the label “slang” in this way is evidently due to the fact that Barnhart's Dictionary aims not so much at discrimination between different stylistic subtleties of neologisms but mainly at fixation of lexical units which have already won general recognition thorough constant repetition on newspaper language.

Slang, according to the American poet, Carl Sandburg is “Language which takes off its coat, spits on its hands-and goes to work”.

U.M. krebnev defines slang as a part of the vocabulary consisting of commonly understood and widely used words and expressions of humorous or derogatory character-intentional substitutes for neutral or elevated words and expressions.

M. Goldenkov gives the following definition:

“Slang is everything which is out of the books.”

Slang is also the idiom of the life force. It has roots somewhere near those of sexuality, and it regularly defies death.

“Nonstandard vocabulary composed of words or senses characterized primarily by connotations of extreme informality and usually by a currency not limited to a particular region. It is composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily changed words, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced, or facetious figures of speech, or verbal novelties”/11/.

The term “slang” is ambiguous because, to use a figurative expression, it has become a Jack-of-all-trades and master of none.

There are a lot of definitions of slang and all of them seem to be correct. They characterize this many-sided phenomenon from all the points of view.

The Oxford English dictionary provides a more judicious account: “Language of a highly colloquial type, considered as below the level of educated standard speech, consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense”. In a related definition, it also describes slang as “language of a low or vulgar type” and “the special vocabulary or phraseology of a particular calling or profession”. This sums up the paradox of slang very well. People look down on it, but can hardly avoid using it.

Though some scholars ignore slang the English language contains a rich array of slang words and phrases. This can be particularly seen when examining the day-to-day language of an average speaker. Some words and phrases are perhaps not suitable for general consumption and have omitted these. Even so, many of the following will offend some people and it is worth stating that their inclusion is to provide a realistic representation of the language, not to be sensational or abusive. It's the nature of slang that it is either used to replace taboo phrases or to playfully enhance them.

In some cases slang may provide a needed name for an object or action (walkie-talkie, a portable two-way radio; tailgating, driving too close behind another vehicle), or it may offer an emotional outlet (buzz off! for go away!) or a satirical or patronizing reference (smokey, state highway trooper). It may provide euphemisms (john, head, can, and in Britain, loo, all for toilet, itself originally a euphemism), and it may allow its user to create a shock effect by using a pungent slang expression in an unexpected context.

Slang is used for many purposes, but generally it expresses a certain emotional attitude; the same term may express diametrically opposed attitudes when used by different people. People use slang consciously and unconsciously in the course of ordinary, every day interaction. Essentially, slang allows speakers the freedom to play with and enjoy the language, make words up, adopt new expressions indiscriminately, and use language for humor, irony, sarcasm, and irreverence. Also slang allows people to name things indirectly and figuratively, especially through metaphor, metonymy, and irony. Many slang terms are primarily derogatory, though they may also be ambivalent when used in intimacy or affection. Some crystallize or bolster the self-image or promote identification with a class or in-group. Others flatter objects, institutions, or persons but may be used by different people for the opposite effect. "Jesus freak," originally used as ridicule, was adopted as a title by certain street evangelists. Slang sometimes insults or shocks when used directly; some terms euphemize a sensitive concept, though obvious or excessive euphemism may break the taboo more effectively than a less decorous term. Some slang words are essential because there are no words in the standard language expressing exactly the same meaning; e.g., "freak-out," "barn-storm," "rubberneck," and the noun "creep." At the other extreme, multitudes of words, vague in meaning, are used.

H. Wentworth and S. Flexner in their “Dictionary of American Slang” write: “Slang is the unescapable means of communication. Sometimes it is used to escape the dull familiarity of standard words, to suggest an escape from the established routine of everyday life. When slang is used, our life seems a little fresher and a little more personal. Also, as at all levels of speech, slang is sometimes used for the pure joy of making sounds, or even for a need to attract attention by making noise. The sheer newness and informality of certain slang words produce pleasure. But more important than this expression of a more or less hidden aesthetic motive on the part of the speaker is the slang's reflection of the personality, the outward, clearly visible characteristics of the speaker. By the large, the man who uses slang is a forceful, pleasing, acceptable personality.”

The professors of Moscow Gymnasium of Humanities N.V. Pavlova and Y.A. Kuleshova state that there is something that attracts people to slang. They can use slang for different reasons:

· to make an impression;

· to be on a colloquial level;

· to lend an air of solidity;

· to be novel; to be different;

· not to be understood by somebody;

· to demonstrate the class that one belongs to;

· to be an interesting speaker;

· to enrich the language;

· to induce friendliness.

Slang may appeal, or it may be disgusting. It may be popular, or may be ignored. But it is really used, so it has to arouse some interest.

It has been claimed that slang is created by ingenious individuals to freshen the language, to vitalize it, to make the language more pungent and picturesque, to increase the store of terse and striking words, or to provide a vocabulary for new shades of meaning. Most of the originators of slang, however, are probably not conscious of these noble purposes and do not seem overly concerned about what happens to their language /20/.

In the present paper we stick to the following definition of slang:

Slang is a nonstandard vocabulary, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced or facetious figures of speech. It is much rather a spoken than a literary language and the instrument to escape the dull familiarity, to suggest an escape from the established routine of every-day life.

1.3 The formation of slang words

The vocabulary of Old English differs from the vocabulary of Modern English. Modern English abounds in the words that were absent in Old English. The language is not a dead phenomenon, it is alive, and it is always up-to-date. The development of the language is gained due to the endless appearance of new words.

Slang comes to be a very numerous part of the English language. It is considered to be one of the main representatives of the nation itself. The birth of new words results from the order of the modern society. Slang arises due to our propensity for replacing old denominations by expressive ones. And yet the growing popularity of every new creation prevents it from remaining fresh and impressive. What was felt as strikingly witty yesterday becomes dull and stale today, since everybody knows it and uses it. So how do the slang words come to life? There are several ways of slang words formation:

1. Various figures of speech participate in slang formation.

For example: upperstorey-head (metaphor)

skirt-girl (metonymy)

killing-astonishing (hyperbole)

some-excellent or bad (understatement)

clear as mud (irony)

Slang items usually arise by the same means in which new words enter the general vocabulary.

2. The slang word can appear thanks to the recycling of the words and parts of words, which are already in the language.

· Affixation allows limitless opportunities for open-ended sets.

For example: megabucks, megabeers, megawork (for vast quantities of the

item in questions).

· Compounding makes one word from two.

For example: airhead-someone out of touch with reality

homeboy-a person from the same hometown

3. A currently productive process especially in American English is the addition of a particle like OUT, OFF or ON to a noun, adjective or verb, to form a phrasal verb.

For example: blimp out-to overeat

blow off-to ignore

hit on-to make sexual overtures to

4. In slang, frequently used words are likely to be abbreviated.

For example: OTL-out to lunch-out of touch with reality

VJ-video jock-an announcer for televised music videos

OBNO-obnoxious

Sup?-What's up?

Pro-professional

5. Unlike the general vocabulary of the language, English slang has not borrowed heavily from foreign languages, although it does borrow from dialects, especially from such ethnic or special interest groups which make an impact on the dominant culture as American Black, or from a second language that is part of the culture.

For example: Yiddish

6. Certain slang words are mere distortions of standard words.

For example: cripes-instead of “Christ!”

7. Sometimes new words are just invented.

For example: shenanigans-tricks, pranks

8. Mock dialect and foreign pronunciation result into the formation of slang.

For example: “my feet are staying” (goodbye)-mock for German “auf

wiedersehen”.

9. Some sounds appear to give words a slangier flavor.

For example the sound [z]: zazzy from jazzy, scuz from scum, zap from slap

10. Sometimes a new slang word can appear due to the replacement or addition of a vowel with [oo]

For example: cigaroot from cigarette, bazoom from bosom

11. Rhyming is a favorite means or creating slang for many Londoners

For example: trouble and strife-wife

mince pies-eyes

12. The transition of slang words within the English language itself comes to be one of the ways of slang words formation /7:861/.

Our students study Oscar Wilde's, Maugham's, Jack London's works of art. These masterpieces can be good examples of the last way of slang words formation. The language of Maugham is still understood but even priests don't speak this way.

There is a good fairy-tale to demonstrate how the transition of slang words is used in practice.

Fairy-Tale.

A frogman liked to take pictures under water but a princess liked to stroll along the shore. The princess lived one hundred and ninety seven years ago but the frogman still lives.

One day he happened to dive in 1997 and to emerge in 1800. He was a bit embarrassed to see the boats and fishing net, which were not few hours ago. But having noticed the strolling girl dressed in unfashionable clothes he smiled: “They make movie”. The girl came closer and saw him. “Oh, boy!” - exclaimed the boy having looked at the wonderful dress of the princess. “I'm a girl” - she answered. “What a nice joke!” - thought the frogman. “I'm a princess” - she said. “I see, she plays the role of princess” - the frogman thought. “Cool day today, isn't it?” - he told. “Why does he say that it is cool today? It's too warm.” - thought the poor girl. “No, the day is good. Who are you?”

“I'm the frogman,” - he introduced himself.

“Frogman?!” - exclaimed the princess with fear. The man really liked the frog.

“Yeah, frogman, I shoot submarine world. I see you shoot movie over here as well. Cool.”

The princess prowled back. She didn't want to communicate with the strange frog-man. Suddenly she saw his camera lying on the sand.

“It's my camera. Sometimes I shoot.” - he added.

“Oh my God! He shoots under water. He is the killer. He is the water-monster!!!”

The princess yelled and ran away.

“She is so strange” - the frogman thought and took his way /3:31/.

The same linguistic processes are used to create and popularize slang as are used to create and popularize all other words. Slang expressions often embody attitudes and values of group members. They may thus contribute to a sense of group identity and may convey to the listener information about the speaker's background. Before an apt expression becomes slang, however, it must be widely adopted by members of the subculture. At this point slang and jargon overlap greatly. If the subculture has enough contact with the mainstream culture, its figures of speech become slang expressions known to the whole society. For example, cat (a sport), cool (aloof, stylish), Mr. Charley (a white man), The Man (the law), and Uncle Tom (a meek black) all originated in the predominantly black Harlem district of New York City and have traveled far since their inception. Slang is thus generally not tied to any geographic region within the country. A slang expression may suddenly become widely used and as quickly dated (23-skiddoo). It may become accepted as standard speech, either in its original slang meaning (bus, from omnibus) or with an altered, possibly tamed meaning (jazz, which originally had sexual connotations). Some expressions have persisted for centuries as slang (booze for alcoholic beverage). In the 20th century, mass media and rapid travel have speeded up both the circulation and the demise of slang terms. Television and novels have turned criminal cant into slang (five grand for $5000). Changing social circumstances may stimulate the spread of slang. Drug-related expressions (such as pot and marijuana) were virtually a secret jargon in the 1940s; in the 1960s they were adopted by rebellious youth; and in the 1970s and '80s they were widely known.

In fact, most slang words are homonyms of standard words, spelled and pronounced just like their standard counterparts, as for example (American slang), cabbage (money), cool (relaxed), and pot (marijuana). Of course, the words cabbage, cool, and pot sound alike in their ordinary standard use and in their slang use. Each word sounds just as appealing or unappealing, dull or colorful in its standard as in its slang use. Also, the meanings of cabbage and money, cool and relaxed, pot and marijuana are the same, so it cannot be said that the connotations of slang words are any more colorful or racy than the meanings of standard words /3/.

“Cool” is a very meaningful word. In the Standard English language it is translated as something between warm and cold. But in the everyday conversations it is used in the meaning of something “great”, “wonderful”, “good”. The word “cool” can be both the noun and the attribute.

Compare: cool cat = great fellow

It's cool = it's good.

The meaning depends on the person uses it. So the expression “cool weather” can have two translations depending on the content.

These are the slang meaning of the word “cool”.

Cool:

1. To postpone, await developments in; let's cool this whole business for a

week or so.

2. To kill; who knew what he wanted to it look like when he cooled her.

3. In control of one's feeling; learn to be cool under fire.

4. He lost his cool and bolted like a rabbit.

5. Aloof and uninvolved, disengaged; He's cool; don't give a shit for nothing.

6. Cool musician Jazz marked by soft tones, improvisation based on advanced

chord extensions, and revision of certain classical jazz idioms.

7. Pleasant, desirable; you enjoying it? Is everything cool?

The verb “to get” is worth mentioning in order to give the sufficient information about the slang meaning of the ordinary word “to get”. The ordinary meanings are not enough for the decent conversation. Meanwhile “to get” substitutes a great number of verbs. This verb can be used instead of the verbs: to have, to understand, to find and so forth. “To get” is a very popular verb. But when it is used in relation to the human beings it has another meaning.

For instance: The sheriff got the criminal-The sheriff killed (shot) the criminal.

The robber got the hostess-The robber raped the hostess.

The boy tells the girl: “I love you since the first day I got you.”-“I

love you since I met you for the first time.”

He got the government to declare it a wildness area.-He made the

government to declare it a wildness area.

To get closer-to reach

It's getting dark - The night comes.

It's getting better - It becomes better.

To get somebody to do something-to make somebody to do something.

These are the slang meaning of the verb “to get”:

TO GET:

1. to seize mentally; grasp; understand; Do you get me?

2. to take note of, pay attention to; Get him, acting like such like a big shot.

3. to kill or capture, retaliate destructively against; He can't say that. I'll get him.

4. offspring, progeny.

5. the route taken by criminals in fleeing the scene of their efforts; to get or getaway route.

6. to get the punishment one deserves; Don't worry, he'll get his before this is all over.

7. to become rich, get one's large share of worldly goods; she went into this business determined to get hers by the time she was thirty.

1.4 The sources of modern slang

Slang is not the language of the underworld, nor does most of it necessarily come from the underworld. The main sources of slang change from period to period. Thus, in one period of American slang, frontiersmen, cowboys, hunters, and trappers may have been the main source; during some parts of the 1920s and '30s the speech of baseball players and criminals may have been the main source; at other times, the vocabulary of jazz musicians, soldiers, or college students may have been the main source /3/.

Most subcultures tend to draw words and phrases from the contiguous language (rather than creating many new words) and to give these established terms new and special meanings; some borrowings from foreign languages, including the American Indian tongues, are traditional. The more learned occupations or professions like medicine, law, psychology, sociology, engineering, and electronics tend to create true neologisms, often based on Greek or Latin roots, but these are not major sources for slang, though nurses and medical students adapt some medical terminology to their slang, and air force personnel and some other branches of the armed services borrow freely from engineering and electronics /21/.