The social and historical factors of martial artsroutinein the Republic of China

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The social and historical factors of martial artsroutinein the Republic of China

Liu Zhou

Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor

Lingnan Normal University

This article is devoted to the impact of the unique social conditions and historical environment of the Republic of China era on the development of martial arts routines. It provides an in-depth analysis of the survival status of martial arts routines during that period and examines the social background and historical factors behind the emergence of competitive martial arts routines. The article also investigates the underlying reasons for the sportification of martial arts routines during the Republic of China era.

Keywords: the Republican Era, Martial Arts Routines, Competitive, Society, History. republican era martial arts routine

Introduction

Dialectical materialism upholds the view that the material world is in a state of motion and development. Development refers to a specific type of progressive and upward movement, involving a certain transformation from simplicity to complexity and from a lower to a higher level. The evolution of martial arts from primitive combat to the emergence of routines and the formation of systems, from a singular focus on combat functionality to the integration of techniques, fitness, and artistic aesthetics, and from initially simple and practical routines to highly artistic and visually appealing competitive routines, all indicate its progression from a lower to a higher stage of development. Martial arts routines, arising at a certain historical stage in the development of martial arts and influenced by Chinese traditional culture, were created for the purpose of ease of memorization, transmission, and training. They serve as a means of training and a vehicle for technical expression, constituting an essential and prominent aspect of martial arts and its main form of manifestation. Compared to other combat techniques worldwide, martial arts routines are one of the key distinguishing features of Chinese martial arts. Understanding the development of martial arts routines is tantamount to grasping the key to the development of Chinese martial arts. Martial arts routines gradually took shape in 20th-century China under the influence of Western sports.

Relevance of research

The period of the Republic of China (1911-1949) was a highly unique historical era, marking both the end of feudal dynasties in China and a time of internal and external turmoil with the nation's fate hanging in the balance. During this period of social upheaval, the country gave birth to new directions for development, transitioning from an old society to a new one, evolving from old culture to new culture, and transforming from a subsistence-based economy to a market economy. Martial arts, as a cultural structure rooted in people's way of life, underwent subtle transformations in response to these changes. Therefore, conducting in-depth research into the development and transformations of martial arts routines during the Republic of China period, analyzing their existence within the social context and historical framework, and exploring the process of their evolution, is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the historical development of martial arts routines and for identifying future trends in their development.

Review of sources

Ding Liping and Guo Zhishu (1999) discussed the development of competitive martial arts routines over a span of 40 years, focusing on major competitions and rule aspects. They concluded that the 40- year history of competitive martial arts routines demonstrates its connection to the fate of the nation. The evolution of routine competitions from being a performance event at conferences to becoming organized tournaments, with the establishment of different divisions based on skill level and gender, was made possible by significant political and economic changes during the reform and opening-up period. The simplification of competition rules and the quantification of scoring are the basic requirements for its scientific nature.Zhang Xuanhui (1996) examined the evolution of martial arts routines from the slave society to the Ming and Qing dynasties. It was noted that the formation of routines underwent a long process of development, starting from simplicity to complexity, from random combinations to gradually stable choreography, and from imperfection to relative perfection. Martial arts routines originated from ancient military combat, incorporating elements from various art forms, and eventually separated from military contexts to become a sport with both offensive and defensive characteristics as well as fitness significance.

The purpose of the research

The theoretical study of the formation and development of martial arts routines during the period of the Republic of China aims to establish a theoretical foundation for the modern competitive aspect of martial arts routines.

Presenting main material

The social background of the formation of martial arts routines during the Republic of China era.

In the development of modern industry, with the fundamental transformation of mechanical manufacturing and warfare weaponry, traditional martial arts, which were once the main means of combat, lost their military practicality, leading to a fundamental shift in the value and function of martial arts culture. The focus shifted from military value to educational value, fitness value, and the value of competitive performance. In the early 20th century, especially after the establishment of the Republic of China, driven by the multiple factors of social, political, economic, and cultural changes in China at that time, martial arts embarked on a path of modernization.

During the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China period, many intellectuals were deeply concerned about the negative consequences brought about by the decline of martial arts and the fading of martial spirit. They advocated the revitalization of national essence and the promotion of martial spirit, which greatly influenced revolutionaries. This prompted them to reevaluate the value of martial arts after the establishment of the Republic of China. Many attributed Japan's victory over China in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to the promotion of bushido, the way of the warrior. They believed that although martial arts had largely lost its direct combat value in military contexts, its value as a spiritual and educational discipline still existed. Consequently, martial arts gradually became an important component of military and civic education. In 1904, Liang Qichao wrote "Chinese Bushido," which advocated for the education of martial arts. In the early days of the Republic of China, Jia Fengzhen, who was enthusiastic about military and civic education, proposed the inclusion of martial arts in various schools and the training of martial arts teachers. Xu Yibing, a renowned educator, also held this viewpoint. In 1914, he submitted a proposal to the Ministry of Education to introduce martial arts classes in schools, which was adopted the following year. Sun Yat-sen, in his preface to "Jingwu Chronicles," attributed the martial spirit to "the combat skills that have emerged to revitalize physical education, which serves the crucial purpose of protecting the nation" [1]. It can be seen that the educational value of martial arts in military and civic contexts greatly elevated its status and facilitated its development.

After World War I, there was a widespread illusion that "justice would triumph over might," and martial spirit seemed to be out of sync with the times. In the early 1920s, the concept of natural physical education from the United States began to influence China. People started to understand martial arts more from the perspective of utilitarian education and natural physical education. This loosened the relationship between martial spirit and the military. Martial arts education in schools received a relatively independent and lenient development environment. At the same time, the influx and vigorous development of Western competitive sports greatly influenced martial arts. If various styles of martial arts continued to develop conservatively within closed circles, it would undoubtedly hinder their progress. Therefore, extensive exchange activities and competitive matches became a historical necessity for the development of martial arts. Under this influence, martial arts embarked on the path of becoming more competitive.

Organizing various forms of martial arts competitions and establishing related competition systems became a notable characteristic of modern martial arts development. Based on available information, during the Republican era, formal martial arts competitions can be roughly divided into two types: pure martial arts routine demonstrations and combinations of routine demonstrations and combat techniques. These two forms of competition had a certain influence on the subsequent development of martial arts in New China, especially the former, which paved the way for competitive martial arts routines to independently take the stage.

The historical reasons for the emergence of martial arts routines during the Republican era.

The influence and impact of Western competitive sports.After the establishment of the Republic of China, influenced by Western sports, martial arts gradually became part of school education. To adapt to collective teaching in schools, Ma Liang, the leader of the Shandong garrison, drew on the teaching and activity methods of Western gymnastics and organized the creation of "Chinese New Wushu." It was not only included as a mandatory training for the military and police, but also became a formal gymnastics course in various primary and secondary schools. This "New Wushu" actually extracted basic movements from various martial arts routines, classified and organized them, and then arranged them into new routines. Its teaching materials and methods were mainly influenced by Swedish gymnastics. Although some critics in the martial arts community criticized this innovation as a new form of gymnastics, this new form of martial arts addressed the long-standing issue of individual instruction and the difficulty of promotion in martial arts, promoting the popularization of martial arts, and thus gaining great popularity in the field of education.In the 1920s, Western competitive sports began to enter China in large numbers and gained a dominant trend. Influenced by this, traditional martial arts needed to rely on competitive sports for development. Introducing the Western sports competition format into martial arts competitions was a response to this impact. Martial arts routines, with the focus on the new form of martial arts, began to enter the arena of competitive sports.

Driven by national consciousness.During the early period of the Republic of China and the Beiyang government, China remained in a semi-feudal and semi-colonial condition. Faced with the impact of Western sports, there was a continuous call for "national essence sports," and martial arts became one of the main components of national education. Although the government at the time developed martial arts for political purposes, the general population actively participated in martial arts activities with a strong sense of national consciousness. They sought to cultivate physical strength, excellent skills, and resilient spirit through martial arts, and martial arts competition became the primary choice for many individuals. During the rule of the Nationalist government, with the establishment and activities of the Central Guoshu Institute, martial arts competitions became more extensive and profound. Especially after the "September 18 Incident," domestic national sentiment reached a fervent level, and the call for "sports to save the country" in the sports community resonated widely. Sports competitions with a distinct military character experienced a peak. It can be said that it was under the impetus of this strong national consciousness that martial arts forms flourished.

The elevation of the recognition of the competitive value of martial arts forms.One major characteristic of the development of modern martial arts is the conscious research on martial arts from a fitness perspective, especially after the First World War when the American concept of natural physical education was introduced to China. This led to the development of martial arts towards the direction of sports, fitness, and competitive activities. In 1919, the Beijing Physical Education Research Society submitted a document to the Ministry of Education, stating that martial arts forms were the best method of exercise, and they listed eight major advantages of martial arts from a fitness perspective: promoting overall physical and mental development, cultivating spiritual refinement, enhancing intelligence, nurturing character, facilitating exercise, being practical, having abundant techniques, and being suitable for people of all ages. This highlights the beneficial aspects of martial arts for physical and mental fitness.Influenced by Western sports, martial arts also developed towards the direction of competitive sports, which is another significant characteristic of modern martial arts. In 1929, Zhang Zhijiang stated that besides having certain physical education value, martial arts training should also emphasize competitions. His recognition of the importance of competition in the development of martial arts had a positive guiding effect on the further expansion of martial arts competitions at that time. Chen Kui-sheng, during the same period, also believed that competitions were a way to judge the level of technical proficiency, indicating that competition was a necessary means for technical improvement and development. By elevating the value of competition to a primary position in revitalizing martial arts, it provided significant intrinsic motivation for martial arts competitions.

The main martial arts forms competitions and their characteristics during the Republican period.

The origins of modern martial arts competitions focused solely on forms can be traced back to April 1923 when Ma Liang, Tang Hao, Xu Yusheng, and others jointly organized the "National Martial Arts Games of China" held in Shanghai. This martial arts event primarily included solo and partner practice of boxing techniques and weapon routines. It changed the traditional competition format of showcasing skills at temple fairs and fighting on platforms. "It was the first-ever single-discipline martial arts competition in Chinese sports history and marked the formal entry of Chinese martial arts into the arena" [2]. However, no judging rules were established for this event, and there was no assessment of superiority or inferiority. It can only be considered a martial arts exhibition and exchange gathering.In 1924, during the Third National Games of the Republic of China, martial arts forms were included as exhibition events for the first time, and simple rules were established to score based on hand techniques, eye movements, body movements, techniques, and footwork. In the Fifth National Games of old China in 1933 and the Sixth National Games in 1935, martial arts further became competitive events with some improvements in the rules. For example, in the Sixth National Games, martial arts scoring standards were based on posture, movements, and power. In 1936, martial arts made its debut as a demonstration sport at the 11th Olympic Games and received a warm welcome. Local newspapers at the time praised martial arts for its three major values: sports value, offensive and defensive value, and artistic value.

Another competition format during the Republican period was the combination of sparring and forms, as exemplified by the two National Martial Arts Examinations held by the Central Guoshu Institute in 1928 and 1933. Both examinations consisted of preliminary and final tests. The preliminary test was an individual performance competition, with categories including boxing techniques, short weapons (knife, sword), and long weapons (spear, staff), scored for evaluation. The final test involved competitive matches, including striking, wrestling, sword-breaking (short weapons), and spear-thrusting (long weapons). Only those who passed the preliminary test were eligible to participate in the final test. The preliminary round of the 1928 "National Martial Arts Examination" focused on forms practice of knife, spear, sword, staff, and boxing, and participants who passed the practice phase were qualified to compete in the sparring events. In the second National Examination in 1933, participants were divided into five weight categories for boxing, long weapons, short weapons, and wrestling. Those who won six times were classified as Class A, five wins as Class B, and four wins as Class C. One notable aspect of this event was the individual assessment and selection for each category, with the top six participants chosen in each event [3].

The martial arts competitions during the Republican era were developed based on traditional martial arts and were influenced by the specific historical environment of that time. As a result, they were inevitably shaped by both the era and tradition, leading to certain characteristics in these competitions:

1) Strong military implications: Martial arts were promoted for military purposes during the Republican era. This was evident in the two "Guoshu Guokao" examinations where the preliminary tests included forms competitions but primarily focused on combat. In the 1933 5th National Games, there were competitions in men's boxing, wrestling, marksmanship, as well as weapons such as knives, spears, swords, and staffs. The number of weapon-based events exceeded that of unarmed events.

2) Performative and award-based competitions: Both the 1923 "Chinese National Martial Arts Games" and the two editions of "Guoshu Guokao" did not have formal rules. The competitions included a wide range of forms from various styles and weapons, with varying lengths and complexity. There were no strict requirements regarding completion time, and some events did not have age or gender divisions. The judges used simple evaluation criteria to score athletes based on their performance and martial arts skills displayed on the spot. Due to the lack of rigorous competition rules to organize structured matches, these events were essentially more like performance showcases with award presentations.

Conclusions

The value and function of modern martial arts have undergone fundamental changes, driven by the social environment of the time, particularly influenced by Western competitive sports. People have gained a new understanding of the athletic and competitive value of martial arts, and the development of martial arts competitions has become an inevitable part of its history. During the Republican period, the development of martial arts forms competitions had a unique historical background and characteristics. Influenced by military demand, the competitions emphasized military implications, with a focus on confrontational matches and a distinct emphasis on weapon-based events. At the same time, the lack of strict competition rules and organizational systems made these competitions resemble more of a demonstration and award-based activity. However, during this period, these competitions played a pivotal role in promoting the development and popularization of modern martial arts, introducing elements of competitive sports and injecting new energy into the inheritance and evolution of martial arts routines. Despite their limitations, these competition activities played an important role in the social context of the time and laid the foundation for subsequent martial arts competitions. With the passage of time, martial arts competitions have continued to evolve and develop, becoming an integral part of contemporary martial arts.

Sources

1. China's Modern Sports History. Beijing Sports College Press, May 1989, p. 144.

2. Lin Boyuan. History of Chinese Martial Arts. Beijing Sports University Press, May 1994, p. 422.

3. Lin Boyuan. History of Chinese Martial Arts. Beijing Sports University Press, May 1994, p. 425.

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