Integration of migrants from Nigeria to Russia

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Integration of migrants from Nigeria to Russia

List of Abbreviations

ICESTC - Intergovernmental Commission on Economic and Scientific-Technical Cooperation

NBS - National Bureau of Statistics

CIS - Commonwealth of Independent States

BEA - Bilateral Education Agreement

NIDO - Nigerians in Diaspora Organization

IOM - International Organization for Migration

USSR - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Introduction

Migration whether internal or international is often in a triad; personal motives which could be for health, education, work or vacation etc. The second in the triad is the forced movement (crisis either natural such as flood, earthquake; religious, political or ethnic conflicts etc.); and the third is being channelled towards achieving institutional objectives such as plenipotentiaries. In this triad, one must be the purpose of migration. Personal reasons along with forced migration have often dominated the core intent for migrating, while institutional objectives are mostly associated with policymakers. The increased dimensions of migration are predominantly due to the search for employment opportunities, escape from predicaments, poverty and political subjugation in Europe and other parts of the world (Adedokun, 2003).

Nigerian immigrants coming to the Soviet Union were only coming for the purpose of education and after the completion of their studies; they go back to their home country. The disintegration of the Soviet Union brought about a change in the migratory movement of immigrants coming to Russia. Immigrants now come for the purpose of reuniting with their family, to work and study. As one of the officials at the Nigerian Embassy in Russia stated, “… people who come to the USSR are either students or government representatives.” However, the break of the Soviet Union allowed migrants for different reasons to come into Russia which makes the society become multicultural (Blokland & Eijk, 2009) which is hitherto a strange phenomenon to the country and also among its people. This could, therefore, expose the immigrants to different challenges in adapting to the host society (Iversen, Sveaass, & Morken, 2012).

The push and pull factors which according to Ravenstein law of migration is the call for labour is one of the major reasons for the upsurge in migration (Ravenstein, 1885).Not denying this proposition by Ravenstein citing the role of the push factors which for the labour migrants, it is the need to have an improved standard of living that is the most influential factor which drives migrants out of their countries, it suffices me to say that current issues around migration do not allow for a generalization of theories but a holistic and individual studies of countries (both the receiving and the sending countries) would provide a better understanding of the theories.

This study will make an emphasis on labour migrant from Nigeria in Russia and their participation in the labour market in the Russian economy using empirical information to analyse the role of socioeconomic integration as a major contributor thatinfluences the decision of the migrants. The impact of this study is that it will emphasize the relevance of socioeconomic integration as a major determinant that influences the decision of migrants on country of destination.

Research Problem

This research is titled “Nigerian Labour Migrants in Russia: Socio-Economic Integration Standpoint of Labour Migration”. Migration is a global issue and it is my view that conducting empirical studies would allow a better understanding of the phenomenon. Also, there is no working integration policy in Russia and trying to understand the pattern of integration of one of the smallest group of migrants in Russia is the central point of this research. This research, therefore, tries to find out a major factor that influences the decision of migrants who are on a search for improved living standard and also the institution through which the migrants are integrated. In this light, a study about the life of Nigerians living and working in Russia are studied.

Objectives

The central point of this research is to find the thin line between the push and pull factors of labour migrants. The research tries to find out why the Nigerians that are working in Russia decide to choose Russia as their country of destination and therefore tries to check if the assertions that “People with black colour (Nigerians inclusive) are racially abused and are victims of discrimination” truly exist. Also, this research tries to find out the extent (using language, accommodation, education,and employability as measurements)to which Nigerians that are working in Russia are integrated into the social and economic spheres in Russia. To carry out these objectives, the research uses a micro level analysis with particular reference on Nigerian labour migrants living in Moscow.

Research Questions

To be able to solve the research problem, this research tries to find answers to some research questions which would aid the research topic.

What is the role of the knowledge of the Russian language in fostering integration?

Are the migrants who acquire higher education in Russia having better integration process than those with higher education from their home country?

What is the role of the migrant's social network in influencing socioeconomic integration in Russia?

How has living in Russia influenced their decision on migration?

Hypotheses

I hypothesize that the level of integration enjoyed by labourmigrants in both the social and economic aspects of the host country is a major factor that influences the decisions of labour migration.

Theoretical Framework

This research adopts the conceptual framework developed by Ager and Strang which helps to shape the understanding of the concept of integration that has been given a wide recognition among scholars. The development of the framework helps to put together and explain the various attempts that have been put forward to define and measure the concept of integration. However, the goal of the framework is to identify potential indicators that determine the level of migrants' integration in the host country. The framework covers aspects such as access to employment, housing, education,and health; citizenship and rights; roles of social links and connections; language barrier (Ager & Strang, 2008). This framework is analysed in the diagram below.

Fig. Markers and Means

nigerian migrant social workplace

These are activity areas that determine successes and failures of integration. These indicators are also identified by the United Nations Geneva Convention of 1951 which tries to measure refugee's rights in terms of employment, housing, social welfare and education (UN, 1951). The markers and means are potentials that help to support the integration process of immigrants.

* Employment: Immigrants opportunities to employment are major factors that have been identified to have an influence in ensuring economic independence in the host country. The participation of migrants in the labour market of the host country is fundamental since getting employed and working is the main source of income (OECD/EU, 2015).

* Housing: The issue of accommodation is mostly dictated by the category of entry of the immigrant. Also, the standard of the accommodation limits the choices that are available to the immigrants with lower incomes. Immigrants are often easily subjected to discrimination by their landlords (OECD/EU, 2015).

* Education: Education allows a member of a community to be more constructive (Ager & Strang, 2008). It is also,however, one of the vital drivers that enables employment and labour market integration (OECD/EU, 2015).

* Health: Accessibility to health facilities of the host country is one of the indicators that spur socio-economic integration of migrants (Council of Europe, 1997) although most scholars have not emphasized its important role (Ager & Strang, 2008). The language barrier could make it difficult for an effective communication with the healthcare providers.

Social Connections

This explains the roles played by the migrants' networks in fostering immigrants' integration in the new society. Using the social capital theory which emphasises on shared norms, values among and within groups, he divided social connections among immigrants into three different parts:

* Social Bond: having a strong emotional attachment to a society that there is a close affinity and maintain such relationship (Scheff, 2000). Many immigrants have great value for relatives, same ethnic community and continued to maintain close ties with them.

* Social Bridges:a relationship that exists between two different groups which allow them to exchange and share ideas among the groups with diverse interest (Panth, 2010). Unlike social bonds, it is a relationship among mixed groups of different ethnicity.

* Social Links: is an expanded relationship existing along the social ladder in a national context. It shows the connection between individuals and state structures such as government services (Ager & Strang, 2008). Social links describe the correlation between migrants and how they share in the services rendered by the government of the host country.

Facilitators

The Knowledge of the language of the host society is a catalyst to immigrants' integration. This does not only make the migrants understand the local people of the new society, it also increases their chances of economic integration. Able to communicate in the society's language also serves as security. Two areas were identified to serve as a major hindrance to the immigrants' participation in the new society they find themselves.

* Language and cultural knowledge: central to integration is the ability to speak the language of the host communitywhich helps to foster community integration of immigrants. Being able to speak the language of the host community increases social interaction and participation in the labour market. The role of language takes a prominent discussion in academic research but however, a wider knowledge of the culture or the host community such as national and local procedures, customs and facilities would accelerate the integration process for immigrants (Ager & Strang, 2008).

* Safety and stability: having a feeling of being safe and living in a stable community foster migrants' integration process (Ager & Strang, 2008).

Foundation

* Citizenship and Rights: Ager and Strang (2008) explained integration as the incorporation of one group into another. The rights enjoyed by immigrants in the country they are living, coupled with the process of acquiring the citizenship of the host country are great measures to understand the integration policies introduced in such countries. These are foundational issues that determine migrants' inclusiveness in having a share of social benefits in the host country.

The framework proposed by Ager and Strang covers ten major indicators which give a better understanding of the concept of integration. This framework is however categorised into two by Christian and Tommaso as economic and non-economic factors(Dustmann & Frattini, The socio-economic integration of migrants., 2011). For this research, I used the classification of Christian and Tommaso'seconomic and non-economic factors and explained the domains highlighted by Ager and Strang with particular emphasis on employment, education, housing, social connections (social bonds and social bridges), and language.

Chapter one:

Background of the Study and Literature Review

Migratory History of Nigerians

Migration is an ambiguous term which makes its definition varies across diverse views among scholars. In simple words, migration involves the movement of people initially dwelling in one part of the country or from one country to another part of the country or to a different country (IOM, 2011). It is, however, an intricate and multifaceted process which involves different intents but having far-reaching impacts on the individual, the country or place of origin and the country or place of destination (Uche C. & IOM, 2016). According to the United Nations, an international migrant is any person who changes the country of his or her original residence. Therefore, international migration could be explained as the movement of people owing to different factors such as economic rationale, family unification or refugees. It should be known that migration data and information for countries vary in their reliability and comprehensiveness but for this research, migration data of Nigerians are garnered basically from the databases of IOM and the World Bank.

Nigeria, being the demographic giant in Africa, migration has over time shaped her history, culture and political development. Being the most populous Black nation in the world with a population of about 186 million out of which 45% are less than 15 years and 3% aged 65 and above, shows that migration tends to particularly favour the young and active population (World Bank, 2017). Also, the population growth rate has been put at 2.6% which is relatively high (World Bank, 2015) and having an unemployment rate which was as at 2014, 7.8%, has increased to 14.2% by the third quarter of 2016 (NBS, 2018). These factors would by no means influence the desire of many Nigerians to seek for alternative measures elsewhere which have led to the increase in the number of Nigerian migrants. With the growing trend of unemployment in the country, this has led to the growth of poverty. Ina means of trying to escape living in the quagmire of poverty, people tend to look for fortune elsewhere (Mberu & Pongou, 2010).

The migratory history of Nigeria can be viewed from the dispensations experienced in the country: pre-colonial, colonial,and post-colonial (Adejumoke, Godwin, & Olumuyiwa, 2008). In the pre-colonial period, it should be mentioned that there was no country called Nigeria but different empires and kingdoms, but there has been human mobility and migration in the different empires and kingdoms. Such mobility includesnewly found settlements, slave raiding and trading activities, pilgrimage tradition, and war (Adejumoke, Godwin, & Olumuyiwa, 2008). The colonial period witnesses the amalgamation of the different kingdoms and empires together to form the country called Nigeria. During this period both internal and international migrations occurred simultaneously. Most Nigerian migrated to the United Kingdom to continue their higher education. This is also a trend which continued after independence (Haas, 2006). The post-colonial or post-independence era saw a continued movement of people both internally and internationally. Nigeria became a destination country for most of her West African neighbours because of the riches and opportunities owing to a buoyant economy and a good standard of living due to the discovery of oil but however, owing to the fall in the price of oil at the international market, and the dependence on oil as the chief export, the country experienced a backlash as there was an increase in poverty and most people saw emigration as the best option to escape such predicament (Adejumoke, Godwin, & Olumuyiwa, 2008).

Nigeria has been both the sending and receiving country of migrants in Africa and particularly, within the West Africa sub-region (Adepoju, 2004). The role Nigeria plays in the migration system in Africa cannot be ignored; as a destination, transit and source country. This role is characterized by both positive and negative patterns of migration (Haas, 2006) with violent extremism as the chief driver for displacement and migration (IOM, 2018). Nigeria is one of the countries with large numbers of emigrants (Dilip, et al., 2011) with an estimated figure as at 2013 relating to the stock of emigrants of 1,030,322 (IOM, 2016). According to the report, as at 2013, 35.6 percent of Nigerian emigrants live within the shores of the African continent; 34.2 in Europe and 26.4 percent in America basically, the North America and the rest in other parts of the world such as Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Oceania (IOM, 2016). The ten most preferred counties of destination for Nigerians migrants include the United States, United Kingdom, Cameroon, Ghana, Italy, Benin Republic, Ivory Coast, Canada, Togo, Spain, Germany, United Arab Emirate, Ireland, Niger and South Africa (Pew Research Center, 2016). The two main destination countries for Nigerians are the United States and the United Kingdom (I-MAP, 2011) which is due to the presence of various opportunities opened to them with respect to job opportunities, education and training, and socio-cultural identification compared to other countries.

In 2013, the total number of Nigerian migrants in Eastern Europe was 3,166 (Uche C. & IOM, 2016). Most Nigerians who migrate to Russia are there basically to continue their education or as a representative of the Nigerian government at the embassy but however, the year 2011 marked a change in the number of Nigerian migrants coming to Russia. There was a consistent increase in the number of Nigerians migrating to Russia until 2017. The official statistics of the Russian Statistics Department 2018 shows that there are is a decrease in the number of Nigerians who arrived in Russia in 2017 compared to the year before. The report shows that about 405Nigerians migrated to Russia in 2017(ROSSTAT, 2018). In understanding the migratory strategies of Nigerians, the exogenous and endogenous factors have to be considered. Particularly, for Nigerian migrants who made Russia their destination country, these two factors cannot be studied in isolation. The exogenous factorsexplain economic differentials, internal stability/political disorder, international security, and global networks of communication and transportation as the determining factors that influence migrants' decision to migrate. While the latter, endogenous factors, relates to the personal decision-making process of migrants which form their desire and perception of potential places of destination and social- networks that influence the migration streams (Mabogunje, 1970).

Fig. Number of Nigerians who arrive in Russia (1997-2017)

The Place of Russia

Although Russia did not colonize any African country, there has long been a history of interaction that Russia shares with Africa. Such interactions include meetings in Holy Pilgrimages both of the Christian and Muslims to the Holy lands (Alexandra & Shubin, 2013). Also, before the revolution in Russia, the country established a consular office in Cairo (Egypt), Ethiopia and the South African Republic (then called the Transvaal) which has helped to maintain a steady relationship with the countries before their independence and afterward. However, these contacts continued to spread to other African countries in the 1960s as many African countries began to gain independence (Alexandra & Shubin, 2013). In the periods of the 1960s and 1970s, the Soviet Union had become a very important partner to Africa with particular emphasis in the struggle against the colonial administration and apartheid rule. Though the communist ideology of the Soviet Union was not shared by most of the national leaders in Africa, the Soviet Union had a great contribution to the collapse of foreign domination in Africa (Obasekola, 2011). Russia played a significant role in ensuring that the Declaration of Granting Independence to colonies was signed. By the 1980s, Russia already had a bilateral agreement in the economic, cultural and other fields with a lot of African countries in a quest to fostering development. Also, so many African students were given scholarships to study in Russia (principally, in the former USSR) and at the completion of their studies, they go back to their countries and implement a developmental programme (Alexandra & Shubin, 2013). Until the 1980s, the image of Africans as seen by Russians were people fighting against the dominance of imperialism and economic retardation but after the period of Gorbachev's Perestroika, Africans have often been portrayed as emblems of hopeless savagery and stupidity which implies that helping Africans is a waste of time and resources (Bondarenko, Demintseva, Usacheva, & Zelenova, 2014). This was the perception Russians had towards Africans and some sections of the media as also helped in strengthening these stereotypical perceptions.

Nigeria-USSR Relations

The opening of the Russian Embassy in Nigeria in 1961 marked the diplomatic relations between Nigeria and the USSR. This feat was reciprocated by the Nigerian government in 1962 (Waliyullahi, 2016). Like most other African countries, from the period of their independence to the break of the Soviet Union, practiced the “non-alignment policy” due to the heightened tension existing between the West and the East (Ogunbadejo, 1988). The political leaders in Nigeria during this international melee were pro-West and were reluctant to accepting aids from the USSR (Waliyullahi, 2016)but the civil war in Nigeria which almost plunge the country into a state of anarchy and disintegration tilted her to the East when the USSR became the major arms supplier for the federal government of Nigeria (Ogunbadejo, 1988) when Nigeria's traditional allies (USA and UK) were reluctant to support the course of the Nigerian government by granting her request for the supply of arms (Edgar, 2014).

The relationship that existed between Nigeria and the USSR during this period was described as ranging from being “cold to lukewarm” (Onafowokan, 2010) but with the civil war, the USSR became the arms ally for Nigeria which had a great impact in ending the civil war. This,however, opened the windows of opportunities that played out between the two countries in the security, political, economic and socio-cultural spheres (Edgar, 2014).

With a renewed trust between the Nigerian government and the USSR, many joint documents were signed which include Agreements such as: air communication (1967), economic, scientific and technical cooperation (1968), cultural and scientific cooperation and exchanges (1970), economic and technical cooperation in the construction of new metallurgical project in Nigeria (1976), trade relations (1987), intergovernmental commission on trade, economic, scientific and technical cooperation (1989). According to Waliyullahi (2016), the series of agreements between Nigeria and the USSR have led to the involvement of the Soviet Union in the different sectors of the Nigerian economy ranging from metallurgy, petroleum industry, public health service and training of personnel, so also in geological surveys. In 1979, the Ajaokuta Steel Mill Company was constructed by the Soviet government to boost the steel industry and Nigeria's economic base at a sum of about 184 million US Dollars (Obasekola, 2011). Also, a lot of Nigerian youths became beneficiaries of the Soviet Union Scholarship (Edgar, 2014).In the petroleum industry, the USSR between 1977 and 1982 constructed two systems of oil pipelines of 920km with a total output of 18.7 million tons per year (Obasekola, 2011).

Nigeria-Russia Relations

However, the influence of the USSR in Nigeria and Africa at large began to diminish in the wake of Mikhail Gorbachev's reconstruction agenda which cumulated to the end of the cold war (Ojo, 1976) and the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991.This created a New World Order with capitalism becoming the dominant ideology after the collapse of the communist system. Russia became the most viable country of the other former Soviet Union republics (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belorussia, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kirgizia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine,and Uzbekistan) and needed to rise from the ruins left from the USSR (Edgar, 2014).

The new government was faced with the challenge of building a new political administration and also to build a strong economic system. And because of her economic frailty, Russia had limited influence in their African relations. This period was also characterized by the military dictatorship in Nigeria which plunges the country into domestic political and economic challenges. However, the coming of a democratic government in 1999 brought a renewed relationship between the two countries with the signing of a friendly relations and partnership, signing of other bilateral agreement such as the Bilateral Education Agreement (BEA) and also the establishment of the Intergovernmental Commission on Economic and Scientific-Technical Cooperation (ICESTC) which laid the basis for a mutually beneficial relations between the two countries to strengthen their economic ties (Edgar, 2014).

Currently, Nigeria is the second largest trading partner with Russia in the Sub-Saharan continent while Russia is the tenth biggest trading partner with Nigeria in the world (Edgar, 2014). There is a renewed economic interest in Nigeria in sectors such as energy, hydrocarbon extraction, metals and farm mechanization (Obasekola, 2011).

It is of note that the population of Africans in Russia are the minority but the breakup of the Soviet Union opened the door to migration flow from many countries all over the world contrary to the internal flow of migrants during the Soviet Union period. This is a drive towards the liberalization of the economy which would make the economy to be more competitive for industrialization(Heleniak, 2016). The need to encourage and control the inflow of labour migrants became necessary to facilitate the economic growth of the country. With the break of the Soviet Union in 1990,Russia became the dominant country among the former countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Over the years, there have been different policies on migration but the introduced in 2012 was meant to address different issues which I have termed socio-economic-demographic reasons.

The migration of countries of the former CIS into Russia is an obvious trend even before the disintegration of the Soviet Union (Heleniak, 2016). However, migration of other countries into Russia is a novel phenomenon. The table below shows that there is an increase in the number of migration of other countries into Russia but the majority of the migration is from the CIS.

Fig. Foreign Countries Migration into Russia (thousand persons)

Nigerian Diasporas

There has been a constant increase in the number of international migration of both the skilled and the unskilled persons most of which are from the developing countries migrating to the developed countries (Akusoba, 2014). Nigerians are not left out in the floodgates of migrants seeking for better opportunities in the developed countries. There are many Nigerian who are very talented that are now residing in the developed countries who could play a very important role in Nigeria's development. This movement of trained and skilled personnel from a country of origin to other countries for better opportunities is known as brain drain. The term brain drain can also be explained as the global transfer of knowledge and resources in the form of human capital and applies to the migration of academics, skilled professionals, technical manpower and experts from developing to developed countries (Akusoba, 2014). This trend has over the years become a common occurrence in Nigeria with major effects in sectors such as health, university lecturers, engineering,and information technology (Mba & Ekeopara, 2012). As of 2000, about 10.7% of Nigerians who are highly skilled and who got their training in Nigeria are living abroad with the United States of America and Europe having the largest share of the Nigerian skilled workers (Docquier & Marfouk, 2006).

Fig. World Bank data on brain drain

The picture above shows top ten countries of destination for Nigerian with tertiary education in 1990 and 2000. The infinite number of the active Nigerians who migrate to developed countries in search of greener pasture constitutes a chronic brain drain to the country. According to Mojeed-Sanni, as of 2004, about 3.24 million Nigerians have travelled to the USA in search of an improved living standard (Mojeed-Sanni, 2012). The breakdown of which professionals from the Nigerian Universities are the majority, he added that about 250,000 professionals are University lecturers in the USA.

Between 1997 and 2016, the remittance flow into the country has increased from $168 million to $19 billion (World Bank, 2017). Also, the flow remittance takes about 4.6% of the GDP (World Bank, 2017). At the moment, the National University Commission (NUC) is exploiting the potentials for Nigerians in the diasporas to contribute to tertiary education in the country (Uche C. & IOM, 2016). In a means of ensuring a stable relationship between the source country and their host countries, Nigerians in the diasporas are also active in transnational transactions which have promoted the flow of trade, capital,and technology back to Nigeria (Uche C. & IOM, 2016).

The organizational arm of the Nigerian Diasporas is called Nigerians in Diaspora Organisation (NIDO). The continental arms of the global Nigerians in Diaspora areoperational in four continents which are 796NIDO-Europe, NIDO-Americas, NIDO-Asia and NIDO-Africa. NIDO-Russia is a chapter of NIDO-Europe with her headquarter in London(NIDO-Russia, 2018). The core vision of NIDO is to develop effective, unified podium for Nigerians abroad to tie together their endowments, knowledge and assets for Nigeria's national development and nation building (NIDO-Russia, 2018).

Comparison of Nigeria and Russia

Nigeria occupies an area with 923,768 km2 with 356,667 square miles. Her climate varies according to the regions in the country: equatorial in the south, tropical in the centre and arid in the north. Nigeria is the most populous Black nation in the world with a population of over 186.5 million out of which 45% are less than 15 years (World Bank, 2017). The population growth rate is 2.44% with a labour force of 57.46 million and has a percentage of literacy at 59.6 (World Bank, 2015). The 2016 data released by the National Bureau of Statistics shows that Nigeria is facing an increasing high unemployment level of 18.8% with an increasing rate of youth unemployment and underemployment at 52.7% as at the third quarter of 2017(NBS, 2018) and 77% of the employed earning less than $2 per day (World Bank, 2015) which shows that the poverty rate in the country is very high at 46%. The inflation rate in Nigeria as at March 2018 is put at 14.33% which is a reflection of high price consumers had to pay for goods and services that has led to the increase in the consumer price index (CPI) to 13.34% (NBS, 2018). The Human Development Index (HDI) of the country is 0.514 placing the country at a position of 152 out of 188 countries that are put into consideration (UNDP, 2015). The country's nominal GDP in 2015 is put at N94, 268 billion and the income from Foreign Direct Investment in 2016 is $699.4 million (NBS, 2018). The distribution of family income - Gini coefficient index is 42.97 as at 2009 (worldbank.org) indicating that there is a concentration of wealth among few Nigerians at the expense of the majority. Nigeria has a net migration rate of -0.3 which signifies that more people are fleeing the country (World Bank, 2017). The majority of those fleeing the country owing to some factors such as ambiguity in government vision for the country, corruption, lack of job opportunities, widening gaps in the exchange rate and so on, are those in the working range, who are strong, productive and educated.

Russia, on the other hand, has the largest territory in the world. It occupies more than 11% of the land boundary on the earth. It has a dwindling population of less than 144 million and a population growth rate of 0.2% as of 2015 (World Bank, 2015). The labour force in Russia is about 74.89 million with unemployment put at 5.7% (World Bank, 2015). The poverty rate in Russia according to the World Bank is put at 13.4%. Compare to Nigeria, the country has a high human development of 0.798 (UNDP, 2015). The GDP per capita according to the World Bank is 9092.58 US dollar. Russia is a destination of attraction for a lot of migrants from the developing countries mostly from the Commonwealth of Independent State (CIS), the former territories of the Soviet States due to the high standard of living and the possibility of earning an improved pay and having a better lifestyle. Again, the labour market of the country allows the employmentof foreigners in both the formal and the informal sectors of the country (Yudina, 2005). After the break of the Soviet Union, the Russian economy went through series of transformation which ensured that most of the government-owned assets were privatised and allowed more investment by private individuals in the country (Blasi, Kroumova, & Kruse, 1997).

Comparing the economic development of Russia and Nigeria shows a huge imbalance. Russia is more economically developed than Nigeria and this is an exogenous factor that necessitates the increase in the number of Nigerians travelling to Russia. Martin (2005) says that migration is as a result of the disparities in the demographic and economic development of countries. The movement of labour migrants is influenced by an economic factor ranging from employment opportunities, the wage gap, differentials in exchange rate among others which will be influenced by an improved lifestyle (Massey D. S., et al., 1993). This disparity is clearly shown in the tabular representation of the comparison of Russia and Nigeria in the table below:

Table 1: Comparison of Russia and Nigeria

The table shows the disparity in the economic situation of Russia and Nigeria. Nigeria has a larger population size than Russia but with a lower GDP which indicates that Russia has a more productive economy than Nigeria. This is also reflected in the GNI per capita of the two countries. The GNI reflects the average income of a country's citizens.The gross national income (GNI) is the total local and foreign output claimed by residents of a country, consisting of gross domestic product (GDP) plus factor incomes earned by foreign residents, minus income earned in the domestic economy by non-residents (Tadoro Michael & Smith, 2006). This is a reflection of the unemployment rate in the Russia and Nigeria. Nigeria has a higher unemployment rate than Russia and the resultant effect of this is the high poverty rate in Nigeria. The minimum wage is the least amount of wage expected by employers to pay to their employees reveals that workers in Russia are expected to earn more than twice the amount of the Nigerian counterparts. The HDI is a measurement of life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators. It is used by the United Nations Development Programme to rank countries. Russia is ranked 49 with a life expectancy and mean years of schooling at 70.3 and 15.0 respectively while Nigeria is ranked 152 with a life expectancy and mean years of schooling at 53.1 and 10.0 respectively (UNDP, 2015). The net migration shows that there are more Nigerians emigrating the country than the immigration flow into the country. Majority of the people migrating out of the country are the active population who are in search of a greener pasture outside the country (Afolayan, Ikwuyatum, & Abejide, 2009). This has led to the huge amount of remittance flow to Nigeria.

Review of Literature

Both economic and natural resources are not equally distributed among countries of the world and with the fact that there exist distinct characteristics between the developed countries and developing countries, migration into a country that is economically better than the country of origin follows a different process. For migrants to benefit from the social and economic aspect of their host country, a form of inclusion would enhance this possibility. According to Rudiger and Spenser, integration is a process of social inclusion of people who are new to a particular society (Rudiger & Spencer, 2003).

In a view similar to the work of Christian and Tommaso on socio-economic integration, Dustmann and Weiss concluded that socio-economic integration of migrants into the economic spheres of the host country is however very important. They show in their analysis that not less than a percentage of 30% of immigrants in the United Kingdom leave within 5 years of their initial arrival (Dustmann & Weiss, 2007). This, however, shows that if integration is not properly managed, it becomes a major challenge for migrants to fit-in in the country of destination.

Integration of migrants is measured in terms of accommodation, employability, level of education, and socio-cultural adaptation to the new society (Rinus, 2003). Berglund et al. explained that for migrants to integrate into the labour market of the host country there are certain factors that hinder their smooth integration. Some of the factors include discrimination, the level of education and negative perception towards the migrants (Berglund Else, 1999). Language is another factor that I will add to complement the list of factors that help to influence the integration process of migrants into the labour market of the host country.Demintsevaalso pointed out that the type of settlement area where the migrants live is another factor that contributes to determining how integrated the migrants would be in the host country (Demintseva, 2017). The composition of the environment where the migrants find themselves helps to shape their perspective about the native people and also influences their attitudes towards them.

ZinebNahmed and Boris Najman explain the inclusion of migrant in the labour market of the host country (Nahmed & Najman, 2012).Using the level of academic attainment of migrants with a comparison to their wages, they concluded that migrants are victims of discrimination in their host country which they referred to as an imbalance between the level of education of the migrants and the demand for labour in the market. According to Hum and Simpson, immigrants' integration into the economy of the country allows them to enjoy a measure of living relatively equivalent to the native-born (Hum, 2004). One of the major ways the level of migrants' social-economic integration in the host country is the labour market. Waldinger puts it that socio-economic integration is the impact the immigrants exercise in the labour market of the host country (Waldinger, 1982). ILO explains that the labour market could be measured in terms of its employability (Castillo Monica, 2011).

Social-economic integration is the integration of migrants into the labour market of the country and the level of economic mobility that the migrants enjoy in the labour market. Social-economic integration is connected to the involvement of the migrants in the labour market of their country of destination (Entzinger & Biezeveld, 2003). Economic mobility in the labour market enables a labour with the opportunity to change one place of employment for another(Long & Ferrie, 2003). To understand the concept of socio-economic integration and the challenges it poses to migrants, other indicators such as income level, the level of social security, social policy and welfare must be considered(Bijl & Verweij, 2012) (Ali, 2016). According to the IMF, the disparity in the income level of the native-born and immigrants shows inequality in opportunities within the economic field in the country(Dabla-Norris, Konchhar, Suphaphiphat, Ricka, & Tsounta, 2015). The number of opportunities opened to the migrants in the labour market also determines the level of economic mobility. The ILO explains social security as the protection that a government provides to the society(Labour, 2001). This protection covers unemployment, work injury, accessibility to health etc. Social policy and welfare are concerned with the well-being of the individuals in a country(McClelland, 2001). The well-being of the migrants is equally of importance to the host country and the level at which migrants benefit from having a relatively equal income, social security, social policy and welfare in the state determines their social-economic integration. Two major factors that could facilitate or hinder the steady integration process in the labour market are the educational status of the migrants and the knowledge of the language of the host country(Entzinger & Biezeveld, 2003).

The influx of international workforce in the Russian economy is increasing which is caused by the high standard of living and the possibility of earning higher salary; she also attributed this to the demand for foreign workers and the open employment opportunities it offers in both the formal and informal sectors of the economy(Yudina, 2005). The vast opportunities that are open to foreign workers are the major factors that are influencing the economic expansion of the once closed economy. Over 100 countries have nationals who are in Russia for employment opportunities. According to data recorded in 2016 by ROSSTAT, there are 796 Nigerians who immigrated to Russia. Maritsa identified the role that the migrant's social network ties play in ensuring that migrants are well integrated into the new community they find themselves(Maritsa, 2003). Many migrants have acquaintance and in some cases, more than one who helps to facilitate the integration process in the host country. The role of social migrant networks cannot be underestimated. It helps to mitigate the cost and risk involved in migration(Haug, 2008). Also, the existence of migrant networks or diaspora helps to influence the decision of migrants in the choice of country destination (Vertovec, 2002). The network concept of migration suggests that migratory movement occurs due to existing links between the country of origin and destination which include factors such as colonial ties, bilateral trade agreement (Castles & Mark, 2009). The multiplier effect of the social migrant network is strengthened and expanded with the addition of each migrant which enablesprospective migrants are able to benefit from the existence of the social networks and ethnic communities in the country of destination.

One inevitable consequence of migration is the increasing trend ofan ethnic and racial multiplicity of societies. The Increase in the trend of international migration means that a growing number of countries have become or are becoming more ethnicallydiverse, and are met with the challenge of accepting peoples of different cultures, races, religions,and language (ILO,IOM;OHCHR, 2001). In various circumstances, migrants are faced with discrimination in their country of destination. In many cases, undocumented migrants are often the victim of this unpleasant situation . However, regardless of the status of the migrants, whether documented or undocumented, migrant workers are often the subject to unequal treatment/job opportunities in their host country. Migrant workers are more inclined to be concentrated in low paying, low skilled, dangerous jobs, and are often a victim of a number of employment restrictions in their host country (Schachter , Jason P., 2007).

Chapter Two: Methodological Framework

Methodology.

A comparative study of Nigerian migrants who arrived during the USSR and Russia is carried out to explain the perception of the host country towards “foreigners”. Here, the word “foreigners” was a common repetition from the respondents during the field work. Most of the respondents concluded that the “Blacks” are the only noticeable foreigner living in Russia. But for this research, I refrain myself from using it because of the specific nature of the research which is essentially towards Nigerian labour migrants. My primary data is gathered from the interviews that I conducted between December 2017 and February 2018. A total of 21indepth interviews were conducted with labour migrants from Nigeria who are living in Moscow, Russia.I applied the snowballing techniques to get my interviewees which according to Biemacki and Waldorf (1981) allow the researcher to have a chain of referrals. It startswith the known respondents who also give a list of other respondents that could be contacted to participate in the research. This method particularly suites the research because the section of the migrant group that is under study is quite small. All the respondents that were interviewed are resident in Moscow and are of different ages and genders. Also, they include migrants who came during the period of the Soviet Union and also after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Both the documented and the undocumented migrants were part of the respondents. A total of seventeen (17) males and four (4) females participated in the interview. The age of the respondents ranges from 25 years to 57 years.

Methods and Techniques

The study is aimed at looking at the influence of socioeconomic integration as a major factor that spurs migration with a study of a specific group of migrants residing in Russia. To carry out the research, a qualitative study is conducted on this group. The qualitative research method that is applied to this study includes interviews, good research skills and a careful selection of respondents. This is a field study,therefore, the personal account and experience of the respondents are very important for the credibility of the study. A criterion sampling method which involves the selection of respondents based on certain predetermined characteristics was applied in the selection process (Patton, 2002). A set of criteria which the respondents needed to fulfill to qualify for the interview include:

* Must have been living in Russia for more than five years; and

* Must be actively engaged in doing a job.

Data Collection: Semi-Structured Interviews

A prepared semi-structured interview guide was used for the qualitative field study research. The interview guide formulated for the research consists of42 open-ended questions (see appendix) which allow the respondents to give a detailed explanation of their experiences and also express themselves freely. All the interviews carried out were one on one since the personal experience of the respondents are needed for the study each of the interviews was betweenforty minutes and one hour thirty minutes. Before the start of the interview, the respondents were told the rationale of the study and their permission were received to record the conversation and also use it for academic purpose. Also, that their identities remain anonymous and confidential; and their information won't be released to anyone without their consent. All the names specified in this paper are not real names of the respondents as their identities remain concealed. The interviewees were also told that if there are questions that they need clarification on, they could ask for it to be clarified and if there are questions that they feel they don't want to answer, they have the right to pass the question.The language of communication during the interview was the English language and the locations for the interview were specifically chosen by the respondents.

Data Analysis

The interviews that I conducted were tape recorded and later transcribed which formed the text of my data analysis. Analyzing the data I got from the interviews, I used a direct interpretation for some of the information I gathered and also tried to categorise some of the variables. A descriptive method and an “in vivo” style of coding were used which allows me to use the direct language of the respondents in coding (Bohm, 2004).The codes were subsequently categorised into further sub-sections.Comparing the variations in the interviews, I divided the year of arrival into two (USSR and Russia). To fully grasp the concept of the data, I explained the data using three indicators that I considered fit for integration the Russian situation which I used to formulate the socio-economic integration cycle.

All the respondents have a higher education and are currently employed or actively engaged in a business activity. I also tried to explain the type of sectors that they are involved and also the number of jobs they have had since participating in the labour market in Russia. The income or salary level was put at 50,000 rubleswhich is above the subsistence income level in Russia. This is so because of the cost of living in Moscow which is quite on the high side. Discrimination on job search was either yes or no while relationship with Russian colleagues at the workplace I categorized as good, bad, both, and indifference. At the social level, I tried to get information on the settlement area where the respondents are living, their relationship with their Russian neighbours and also whether they have experienced discrimination or not in trying to get an accommodation. For proficiency in the Russian language, I used a scale of 1-5 (1=poor, 2=basic, 3=intermediate, 4=good, 5=fluent). Also at the environmental level, I tried to look at the role of migrant networks and the Nigerian Community in the process of integration.

Having done this, I was able to use the responses from the interviews to determine the different institutional processes that determine the level of socio-economic integration of Nigerian labour migrants in Russia. I further explained this process in a cycle which helped to further understand the concept of socio-economic integration in the absence of no recognised governmental policies that could be used to measure the successes or failures of the country in migrant's integration but rather on the reliance on the personal experience of the migrants. However, since most literature on integration have concentrated majorly on explaining the concept using the various policies on migrant integration, to study such concept in Russia, the personal accounts of the migrants becomes very imperative. It is also equally pertinent to note that all the literature that I consulted did not consider integration in both the social and economic aspects as one of the pull-push factors that influences the decision of labourmigrant's selection of country of destination.