The main values in Russia, USA and UK

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1. The problems of Higher Education System in Russia, the USA and UK

If all good people were clever and all clever people were good, the world would be nicer than ever.

I think that education is a key to a good future. And schools are the first step on the education-way. Schools help young people to choose their career, to prepare for their future life, they make pupils clever and well-educated. They give pupils the opportunity to fulfill their talent.

Education in Britain developed by steps. The first step was the introducing of two kinds of school: grammar schools and secondary modern schools. Grammar schools offered a predominantly academic education and in secondary modern schools education was more practical. The second step was the introducing of a new type of school, the comprehensive, a combination of grammar and secondary modern, so that all children could be continually assessed and given appropriate teaching. These schools were co-educational and offered both academic and practical subjects. However, they lost the excellence of the old grammar schools. Then after 1979 were introduced the greatest reforms in schooling. They included the introduction of a National Curriculum making certain subjects, most notably science and one modern language, compulsory up to the age of 16. The National Curriculum aims to ensure that all children study essential subjects and have a better all-round education. Pupils' progress in subjects in National Curriculum is measured by written and practical tests. More ambitious pupils continue with very specialized studies in the sixth form. They remain at school for two years more. Pupils sit for exams leaving secondary school and sixth form. They sit for the General Certificate Secondary Education at the end of the 5th-years' course. A-level or AS-levels are taken after two years of study in the sixth form. They are the main standard for entrance to university or other higher education. Some parents prefer to pay for their children to be educated at independent schools. This private sector includes the so-called public schools, some of whose names are known all over the world, for example Eton. It provides exceptionally fine teaching facilities, for example in science, languages, computing and design. Its students are largely from aristocratic and upper-class families. The Government's vision for the education system of the 21st century is that it will neither be divisive nor based on some lowest denominator. Diversity, choice and excellence will be its hallmarks in this century.

The public educational system in Russia includes pre-schools, general schools, specialized secondary and higher education. So-called pre-schools are kindergartens in fact. Children there learn reading, writing and maths. But pre-school education isn't compulsory - children can get it at home. Compulsory education is for children from 6(7) to 17 years of age. The main branch in the system of education is the general schools which prepare the younger generation for life and work. There are various types of schools: general secondary schools, schools specializing in a certain subject, high schools, and gymnasiums and so on. The term of study in a general secondary school is 11 years and consists of primary, middle and upper stages. At the middle stage of secondary school children learn the basic laws of nature and society at the lessons of history, algebra, literature, physics and many others. After 9th form pupils have to sit for examinations. Also they have a choice between entering the 10th grade of a general secondary school or going to professional school. Pupils who finish the general secondary school, receive a secondary education certificate, giving them the right to enter any higher educational establishment. One has to study in the institute for 5 years. Higher educational institutions train students in one or several specializations.

The American system of education differs from the systems of other countries. There are free public schools which the majority of American children attend. There are also a number or private schools where a fee is charged. Education is compulsory for every child from the age of 6 up to the age of 16 except in some states, where children must go to school until the age of 17 or 18. Elementary or primary and secondary or high schools are organized on one of two bases: 8 years of primary school and 4 years, or 6 years of primary, 3 years of junior high school and 3 years of senior high school. The junior high school is a sort of halfway between primary school and high school. The high school prepares young people either to work immediately after graduation or for more advanced study in a college or university. An important part of high school life is extra-curricular activities; they include band or school orchestra, sports and other social activities. There is no national system of higher education in the United States. Instead, there are separate institutions ranging from colleges to universities. They may be small or large, private or public, highly selective or open to all.

THE USA

The American system of education is well-known all over the world and is appreciated for high quality and big opportunities which open before students after graduating. 70% of the most influential and profitable posts in the government, in noncommercial organizations and in private enterprises worldwide are occupied with the graduates of the American universities, who have degree of the Master. 98% of graduates with degree of the Bachelor get job within 6 months after graduating. To get a degree of the Bachelor one needs as a rule 4 years , and to get a degree of the Master 2 years more . Americans attach much importance to higher education. They consider higher education necessary to become an informed voter of the country. Many Americans have also another views - they consider , if you get higher education you have more opportunities to gain higher income.

Problem № 1 financing

All educational institutions can be either state , or private , it depends on the funding source . Both private and the state educational institutions have three sources of the income: tuition fees from students , donations (payments which are done by rich philanthropists) and state financing . In the most prestigious colleges and universities such funds reach very large sizes : e.g. . in such universities as Harvard , Yale and Princeton funds are more than billion dollars . The major part of tax money accrues to the state educational institutions rather than to private ones.

Education which always has been one of the most essential family expenses in America becomes more and more expensive. This autumn average cost of a four - year educational course at the most inexpensive state universities has grown to 6,4 percent. And in private universities cost has grown on the average to 5 , 9 percent . Rise in the cost of education , at simultaneous depletion of state treasury and reduction of financing represents considerable threat for the future of country since good education becomes less affordable . Probably, it is necessary to study and apply experience of other countries which, having passed to the subsidized forms of higher education , show remarkable economic upturn . Rather convincing example - Ireland where education is free from kindergarten and up to doctor's degree.

Problem № 2 - Liberal Arts the best choice

At university faculties there are several types of courses:

Courses that are obligatory for each student (for example, general history , mathematics, literature, research technique ) .

Basic courses that students can choose for themselves ( in area in which they wish to receive the diploma ). And a number of "open classrooms"- courses, (which they don't have to study, but may) .

And in such situations students often face a problem of choosing the future specialization. So, at universities appeared the programme Liberal Arts which helps to solve this problem easily . For the first 2 years students study variety of subjects not only humanitarian but also natural sciences . Multi-faceted education helps to define interests and academic abilities of the students before focusing them on a separate field of knowledge. As soon as the choice is done, students deepen into their subjects , carry out their own independent researches, and obtain experience . Such excellent preparation opens wide professional horizons before students.

According to statistics American schoolboys and students in general dislike the exact sciences , first of all mathematics . In amount of high-qualified engineers USA give way to China and India, and American economy lacks people with the higher technical education .

From here follows a third problem.

Problem № 3 Claims of Americans to system

Many Americans are not satisfied with the current state of higher education in the country .

Following moments come under criticism: " every eighth gifted student after leaving public/high school does not continue studying at college.

Only half of students which enter college achieve the object/aim/goal. The most part of discontent refers to academic program of colleges and universities and , in particular, to big variety of subjects for choice. So there are such situations when some students receive the diploma, not having heard a course of history of the Western civilization for example not to mention/let alone the cultures of other parts of the world. Others graduate without studying natural or political sciences. Many colleges already try to correct the situation. Such problems show that the higher education in America continues to change as it has been changing throughout all its history.

Russia

The higher education in Russia throughout the last 10 - 12 years has been constantly reforming.

The main problem of the Russian higher education is lack of financing. Russian universities are mostly paid by the state. Their system is centralized and therefore is under tight control. Our educational system is now considered to be in the final state of degradation, but due to the future innovations it is to become better. There are some new trends in higher education in Russia. The first is looking for the new sources of funding, for example, funding by companies, which will later employ the graduate . An other trend is the creation of new research universities.

A great problem in our educational system nowadays is the Unifies State Examination. The introduction of the USE was offered by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation with the purpose of combination of final exams of 11 classes of school and entrance examinations in the high schools. Proponents of the USE believe that it will help to fight corruption at entrance examinations, and also will promote more adequate and fair system of the pupils knowledge estimation. Opponents of the USE recognize the necessity of the educational reform, but consider, that it is impossible to combine final and entrance examinations because of different requirements to knowledge at schools and high schools. Besides it is impossible to estimate abilities of the pupil adequately through testing.

The Great Britain

Universities in the United Kingdom are mostly sponsored by the government. English universities experience nowadays a serious shortage in financing. They cannot afford to hire qualified teachers. Salaries of professors are not high; they are not motivated to work well. Universities also lack equipment, necessary for educational process. The standards of British education can fall, if British universities will continue to accept mediocre students in order to solve the problem of financing. In its turn it may lead to the demotion of British universities in the world rate.

According to analysts, deficiency of financing of the British universities is about 99,95 billion pounds (16 billion dollars) a year . To make it good high schools tried to charge additional payments from the students . But students in their turn organized mass manifestations of protest , asserting that availability of education should depend on mental abilities of students not on financial possibilities of their parents .

2. Books and readers. The purpose of reading. Most essential kinds of reading

Reading is the most important way of getting information. About 90 per cent of private study time goes for reading. In this presentation I'm going to dwell on the rate of reading, different types of reading and my attitude to books.Rate of reading depends not only on the peculiarities of an individual's comprehension, but also on such factors as clarity of presentation, difficulty of the material and the type of reading.

We can distinguish several types of reading, that is types for different purposes of reading.

The first one is reading to master information, to learn something. It is usually very careful, slow and repeated. When studying something we usually mark the book or use stickers in order to write some useful information or your thoughts out.

The second type is skimming through a book in order to get a general view of it. We use such very quick reading when we choose a book in a library or in a book store.The third type is revision reading, that is reading very rapidly a book or a part of it, with which you are familiar, in order to confirm your knowledge.The fourth type of reading is reading in order to search for specific information of to answer a specific question. We usually do it at classes or when we prepare for an exam.

Another type is critical reading, which means reading a book for review. This is one of the most interesting and fruitful types of reading. This reading is rather slow and the reader pays attention not only to the plot, but also to the stylistic peculiarities of the book and tries to read between the lines.Reading for pleasure can be both slow or very fast. Everything depends on your preferences. Whether you prefer just to know the plot or you want to enjoy the peculiarities of the author's manner.

As for proof-reading, which is rather slow and attentive, it is often used by editors and teachers. Its aim is to check spelling, punctuation and sentence structure.

Now I'm going to say some words about the types of readers. We can distinguish the main 3 types of readers.

People belonging to the first type have large libraries, they like to collect books and often buy modern fashionable books. But they don't read them as their libraries just serve as a decoration.

People belonging to the 2d type also have large libraries, but they don't read all books, just some of them. They pay much attention to the book's jacket and the physical appearance of their books.

The third type of readers can be characterized as passionate one. Such people have many or few books, but they read them from cover to cover, they analyze them, turn corners, put stickers into the books, where they write some citations or their thoughts.

Talking about reading I can't help mentioning e-books. They are becoming more and more popular in our digital world. In the future we can have just one little device for e-books reading with us, but there will be about 5000 different books we like. But of course, computers are not the reason to forget books!In conclusion I would like to say that reading is the best way to develop your mind and to learn not only some useful information, but also to learn to feel the real beauty of your language.

A book is a one of the greatest wonders in the world. It gives us a unique chance to link up with authors who lived hundreds and thousands years ago. Thanks to books, we can talk to people who lived in different ages and countries. Through reading books we hear their voices, thoughts and feelings. Books are the surest way to bring nations together. They give us an insight not only into the past, but also into the future. A book is faithful and undemanding friend: it can be put aside and taken up again at any moment. I think that good literature always expresses the author's position. And no real art can be achieved without the truth of life.

Books can fit almost every need, temper, or interest. Books can be read when you are in the mood; they don't have to be taken in periodic doses. Books are more personal and more impersonal than professors. Books have an inner confidence which individuals seldom show; they rarely have to be on the defensive. Books can afford to be bold, and courageous, and explanatory; they don't have to be so careful of boards of trustees, colleagues, and community opinion.

Books are infinitely diverse; they run the gamut of human activity. Books can express every point of view; if you want a different point of view, you can read a different book. Reading is probably the most important skill you will need for success in your studies. You will have to read lengthy assignments in different subjects with varying degrees of detail and difficulty. If you read inaccurately, you will fail to understand some of the information and ideas you read. If you read slowly, you will have to spend too much time reading your assignments so that your other work may suffer. Poor reading may be a problem for you, but it is not a hopeless one. Like other skills your ability to read English rapidly and accurately will depend upon a careful instruction and purposeful practice. You must continue to practice on your own to improve your reading skill. Reading speed is determined in part by how many words you can see at a single glance. Here is a comparison of three different readers and how many stops their eyes make. Slow Reader: Being able to read by phrases instead of by single words results from practice.

Average Reader: Being able to read by phrases instead of by single words results from practice.

Fast Reader: Being able to read by phrases instead of by single words results from practice. Notice that the slow reader's eyes must stop fourteen times, focusing on each word alone before they move on to the next. The eyes of the average reader stop six or seven times because they are able to see about two words at a single glance. The eyes of the fast reader stop only three times. They focus at the center of a phrase and see three or four words, then move rapidly to the next phrase. This ability to see words on either side of the point at which your eyes focus is called peripheral vision. As a foreign student of English, you may feel, that it is impossible to recognize so many words at a single glance. It is difficult for many native speakers, but it can be done - and must be done if you are to read as rapidly as you should. You can increaseyour peripheral vision by eye exercises.

Books and articles differ in difficulty. Rate of reading depends on the difficulty of the material and on the purpose of reading. We can distinguish:

-reading to get information, usually necessarily careful, slow and repeated;

-exploratory reading, as in skimming through a book in order to get a general view of it;

-revision reading, as in reading rapidly through a book with which you are already familiar, in order to confirm knowledge;

-reading in order to search for specific information or to answer specific questions;

-critical reading, as in reading a book for review;

-reading for enjoyment, as a novel.

A good reader will change his rate of reading according to his purpose. The death, of the book has been predicted for centuries. Cinema, radio and television have all been presented as the murderers of our most treasured cultural icon. The Internet is the latest suspect to hold the smoking gun.

3. Scientific research. Pros and cons

Scientific research nowadays is used in many spheres but most commonly in such sciences as sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology and medicine etc.

Let's start with medicine and for example with cloning.

Cloning is making a copy of a plant or animal by taking a cell from it and developing it artificially. There is nothing new about this -- plants were cloned in Ancient Greece over 2,000 years ago, and the first cloned frog appeared in 1968. However, many people are worried: what if an evil dictator produces hundreds of copies of himself in order to take over the world?

The truth is that there is no chance that any copy of a human being would be identical either physically or mentally, any more than children are identical to their parents. The possible benefits of cloning, however, are numerous, for artificially producing human tissues and organs for transplant, and for preserving endangered animal species. One of the main cons is inability to control it in full. The sphere is new and we don't know what to expect from it.

Another sphere of scientific research is transplantation of organs.

Transplants from animals can help humans. A British girl born with a rare bone condition that left her with only one ear, had a new one grown for her. By taking cells from her existing ear and transplanting them onto the back of a mouse, scientists grew her another one, which could then be transplanted back. American scientists have also used sheep blood cells to make a universal blood which could be given to any patient, regardless of their blood group while British scientists are close to manufacturing artificial blood, with the aid of milk from genetically-altered cows and sheep. The main argument against transplanting organs is the weakening of immunity of the mankind, provoked by it. Another problem is the ethical one. There is a serious danger that healthy people, especially children, will be kidnapped in order to become donors for rich and influential people, having needing an operation.

Chemistry nowadays is also a rich ground for scientific research. Biological and chemical weapons are a matter of acute interest not only for scientists but first of all for politicians all over the world. The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention prohibits the development of biological and toxic weapons, but allows defensive biological work. However, the line between defensive and offensive work is very thin. The problem is that chemical and biological weapons can create the possibility of its being used for war purposes by an uncontrolled tyrant. It can also provoke new serious diseases. But on the other hand chemical weapon can help people for example to fight against the attacks of grasshoppers.

Psychotropic weapons which are a matter of great interest for many countries, are very dangerous and have only cons. It is kept in military secret. And it makes possible to manipulate human behavior with sound or visual messages. And the perception of these messages can easily convince the human being that it is mentally ill. And more developed countries will have added advantages in war of less developed counties.

In my opinion, all the innovations have pros and cons. The mankind has to take great responsibility for its inventions. We must try to avoid or at least reduce their negative impact and try to take only the good from new inventions. It's our choice - how to use it. For or against ourselves.

Choosing a Career. The factors contributing one's choice of a career.

There are several factors affecting the choice of one's career. In my presentation I'm going to dwell on such factors as parental influence, interests, dispositions, salary and market conditions. Then I'll say some words about my career choice.

Many people are heavily influenced by the professions that their parents favor. Others follow the career paths that their educational choices have opened up for them. Some choose to follow their passions, regardless of how much or how little money it will make them. Others look to the career that pays them the highest salary.

Parenting has an immense influence on what career an individual will ultimately choose. If parents have an obsession idea of their child's career future in a certain sphere, it has a powerful psychological affect on their children. Choosing a field in which your parents work is also a frequent occasion, thus children continue their professional dynasty. Sometimes such choice brings happiness and satisfactions, sometimes it becomes a bitter mistake, if the child didn't take into account his own interests and preferences.

Nowadays, most children are encouraged to choose their own career paths. Those who discover the best career for themselves are those who have an accurate understanding of their talents and dispositions the professional opportunities available to them and confidence in their decisions. For some, it takes years of experience and trying different jobs to find the best fit.

Market conditions affect the career choice seriously, too. According to the recent research the most promising specialties of the near future are engineering, IT-specialties, nanotechnology, marketing and sales, service industries, logistics, ecology, medical professions connected with new technologies in life prolongation and chemistry.

Fine salary is also an important factor contributing one's choice of a career. Life is not a simple thing; we have to earn our living. Many people make the mistake of deciding on a career path basing on the assumed salary level. For example you choose lawyer because you think you can make a good living, but in reality you may hate boring documentary work and dream of teaching dancing. “Do what you love and the money will follow.” This saying has a grain of truth to it when it comes to choosing the right career. If you are happy doing what you're doing, you most likely will be good at it, and when you're good at something, you have a good chance of making money doing it. More important, you'll be happy.As far as I am concerned, my career choice was influenced by my interest to foreign languages and my abilities it this sphere. My parents noticed it and put me to an English language gymnasium. I always knew that my work will be connected with languages and the career choice was not painful for me.

4. Juridical system in the USA, UK and Russia

The English Judicial System

A feature common to the system of law in the UK is that there is no complete code. The cases are decided basing on precedent that is previous legal decisions. The English judicial system works in England and Wales. Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own judicial systems.

Now I'll tell about the main types of British courts.

The courts of the lowest level are Magistrates Courts which deal with the majority of cases. These courts are overseen by unpaid and part-time magistrates chosen from the local community.

County courts are on the next level. They deal with basic civil cases.Crown courts deal with any criminal cases not dealt with in the Magistrates Courts. A Magistrates Court may remit a case to the Crown Court if it believes it is sufficiently serious as the sentencing powers of magistrates are severely limited. High Court has three `division'.

These are the:

Family Division which deals with non-criminal cases to do with domestic law;

Chancery Division which deals with business and property law; and, Queens Bench Division which deals with other civil law cases including those of slander and breach of contract.

Court of Appeal has two divisions dealing with appeals regarding criminal and civil law.

The House of Lords is currently the most senior UK Court where appeals against the decision of lower courts in both criminal and civil cases are decided. In 2009, a new Supreme Court will take on responsibility as the UK's highest court of appeal. It will have jurisdiction over the whole UK system including Scotland. It will result in the Judges of Appeal not sitting in the House of Lords (as is the case at present) and will finally ensure the separation of the Legislature from the Judiciary in the UK.

The Court system of the USA

The American court system is complex. Beneath the Supreme Court, Congress has created two distinct types of federal courts: 1) constitutional courts and 2) special courts. The constitutional courts are the federal courts that Congress has formed to exercise “the judicial power of the United States”. They are sometimes called the “regular courts”. Together with the Supreme Court, they now include: the Courts of Appeals, the District Courts, and the Court of International Trade.

The special courts have been created by Congress to hear cases arising out of certain of the expressed powers given to Congress. They hear a much narrower range of cases than those, which may come before the constitutional courts.

The special courts are sometimes called the “legislative courts”. Today, they include the Court of Military Appeals, the Claims Court, the Tax Court, the various territorial courts, and the courts of the District of Columbia.

The Supreme Court of the United States is the only court specifically created in the Constitution. It is made up of the Chief Justice of the United States, and eight Associate Justices. The Supreme Court has both original and appellate jurisdiction. Most of all, however, it is an appellate tribunal. Most of the cases it hears come to it on appeal from the lower federal courts and from the State supreme courts. It hears the disagreements between The Constitution and laws and it can declare unconstitutional.

The Court system in Russia

The judiciary in Russia is split into three branches: the regular court system with the Supreme Court at the top, the arbitration court system with the High Court of Arbitration on top, and the Constitutional Court as a single body with no courts under it.

Whenever there is a dispute between business partners, the case is taken for trial by the courts of arbitration (business or economic courts in fact). The system of these courts is headed by the High Court of Arbitration.

But if a party to a civil case is a private citizen, not involved in business activities, the dispute has to be handled by a court of general jurisdiction.

The major link in the regular court system is Justice of the Peace. It serves each city district or rural district. As trial courts of general jurisdiction, the rayon courts handle over 90 % of all civil and criminal cases. Only a limited category of cases involving the most serious crimes falls directly under the jurisdiction of the next level of courts - the oblast courts.

In 1993 Russia started to experiment with jury trials (panels of twelve jurors). A jury trial is only available in serious crimes.

5. Comparative analysis of dominant Russian and American Values

The question of values becomes important when we cannot understand and explain the behavior of foreigners. Probably you know this from your own experience of communication with people from other countries: sometimes we think that foreigners behave strangely or rudely or just differently from what we expect. In most cases this is what is usually called "cultural misunderstanding".now let's dwell on the concept “value”. There is a considerable confusion surrounding the definition of values. In spite of the fact that there are many definitions and innumerable studies, no definition has attracted widespread consensus. Kurt Bayer notes that to define values sociologists employ a bewildering profusion of terms, raging from what a person wants, desires, needs, enjoys, prefers to what the community enjoys, sanctions or enforces. The concept of value refers to two contrasting ideas. At one extreme we speak of economic values based on products, wealth, prices - on highly material things. In another context, however, the word “value” acquires an abstract, intangible and non-measurable meaning. Among such spiritual values are freedom, peace, justice, equity.

In many societies we find a growing antagonism between some of the new values propagated by the mass-media, and the traditional values inherited from the past. For example, we can single out such pairs as: traditional sex roles/blurring of sex roles or traditional family life/alternative families. But let's analyze all this stuff by looking at two countries, America and Russia.

First of all, we'll give some descriptive information, and then we'll compare them. America. Before we can fully understand the dominant American worldview we need to analyze the historical and cultural roots of mainstream American society. The earliest settlers who came to the North American continent were motivated by the desire to escape the control and the social order of monarchy, aristocracy, and established churches. They were seeking relief from oppression and poverty and were ready to make a fresh start. Freedom is at the center of all that Americans value and hold dear.

The U.S. Bill of Rights, ratified in 1791, assures individual rights such as freedom of speech, press and religion. The concept of individual freedom began to be associated with the United States. By "freedom" Americans understand the desire and the ability of an individual to control his own life without interference from any organized authority.

As we can see, Americans' notion of freedom focused on the individual and individualism. The early settlers were mostly farmers whose success depended on their ability to survive and confront hardships on their own. This idealized self-reliant individual is easily recognizable in the industrial age as a small businessman who became a financial success on his own. This strong belief in self-reliance and self-sufficiency is the basic aspect of the American character.

Though people are not equal in their abilities, equality of opportunity is understood by Americans as an equal chance for success, an equal start to enter the race for success. However, this myth proclaiming equal opportunities has become one of the most battered ideals of today. Only a relatively small number of people under corporate capitalism can reach pinnacle of success, no matter how many people are talented or motivated to succeed.

Only a few can reach the top because they could discipline themselves and work hardest. There is also support from Protestant theology, which tends to associate hard work and personal achievement with being in favor with God. In any context working hard is highly honored by Americans. The self-esteem of many Americans is closely connected with performing productive and rewarding work. Students and children are encouraged to work part-time to gain valuable experience and become contributing members of the family instead of being a dependant. Being a productive member of the society is very important and praised and it is not surprising that elderly people and the disabled strive to be useful and productive in any way they can.

The phrase "to go from rags to riches" reflects the great American dream in which material wealth and possessions are one of the top priorities.

Russia, more than any other country, has always been a challenge for philosophers and historians who tried to provide a logical description of Russia's national identity and national character. There are, however, reasons behind this uniqueness and complexity. Russia is a very old country with the history of more than 11 centuries. It often happened that the new stage of development denied all the values of the previous one: from Tsarist Russia to Socialism, from Socialist Russia to the Free Market Economy. However, despite these sweeping changes Russia has always demonstrated its uniquely Russian character and style which have survived through centuries and resist all attempts to transform or westernize Russia.

It is impossible to approach the culture of Russian people without trying to look at the geopolitical context within which Russia has lived for centuries. Russia is a vast country, situated on the crossroads of Europe and Asia. With such a vast territory to govern, Russia evolved into a state ruled from its center. Distance and isolation prevented easy communication with other centers of civilization which contributed to isolation from excessive foreign influence and to the uniqueness of the Russian national worldview. Russia is also a northern country with a long cold winter and short summer. The harsh climate made Russians strong and healthy, capable of enduring extreme hardship, patient and cautious, dependant on the test of time. The vast territories and cold climate, together with the need to survive and resist the attacks of neighboring countries cultivated the spirit of communalism, which is often considered to be a predominant Russian value.

From prehistoric times when Russians banded together to cultivate the land, to fell the trees, to harvest the crops and to protect themselves from invaders, sobornost (communal spirit, togetherness) became a distinctive feature of Russians in contrast to the individualism and competitiveness of the West.

Communalism at the same time brought about such ideals as dependence on each other's help, mutual support and trust. Russians rely on a close network of family and friends and coworkers as protection against the risks and unpredictability of daily life. On the other hand, communal mentality is alien to the spirit of self-reliance and responsibility. Russians got used to being told what to do and what to think. Even in the modern rapidly changing world decision making is often difficult for Russians who prefer to refer decisions to higher-ups, thus ridding themselves of the responsibility in case things go wrong.

Another important feature of the Russian national value system -- preference of spiritual over material. N.Berdyaev considered Russians to be the most spiritual people in the world and claimed that the economy can be viewed only as an instrument but not the goal or the highest value.

With the advent of the market economy nowadays it may seem that many traditional values will change dramatically. Traditional values are still strong -- self-sacrifice, sense of duty, compassion, the importance of family, and love of nature, courage and moral strength. We may only hope that provided with new practical dimensions, these values will remain the mainstream Russian values.

6. The List of Russian-American Values

1. Going to extremes (Russians) vs. moderation in everything (Americans) A Russian can spend all his money in a restaurant during one night, Americans would probably never do this and would consider the Russian behavior strange or just foolish. education system russia usa uk

2. Open-heartedness (Russians) vs. being reserved (Americans) A Russian can talk to a complete stranger on the train about his or her problems, an American would probably prefer to talk about football, rather than to share his or her problems with anybody.

3. Generosity, hospitality (Russians) vs. BEING PRACTICAL, saving money (Americans) While Russian dinner is a real feast, Americans make as many hamburgers as there are guests expected; if Americans invite you for coffee, they mean coffee and not anything else.

4. Complaining about problems (Russians) vs. Being always OK (Americans) Russians and Americans solve their problems in different ways: if Russians have problems they go to their relatives or friends, if Americans have problems, they go to their psychiatrist.

Russians and Americans also differ in borrowing money: Russians borrow money from their relatives or friends, Americans borrow money from the bank.

5. Critical/ironical attitude to one's country (Russians) vs. patriotism (Americans)Russian love of their country is geographical (they love their nature, their birch-trees); American love is political (they love their freedom and democracy and they believe that it's their sacred duty to protect freedom and democracy all over the world).

6. "Being" orientation (Russians) vs. "Action" orientation (Americans) Americans are more active physically and mentally. Russians prefer to sit at home doing little and earning little money for little work rather than to stand the physical strains of hard work. Russians prefer intellectual entertainment to going in for sports (Americans prefer sports).

7. Leisure orientation (Russians) vs. Work orientation (Americans) You have worked hard before the exam. When you come to your exam and get "5" you tell your colleagues that you knew everything and you deserved it (American); you tell your colleagues that you knew nothing and got "5" because of cheating (Russian).

8. Problem making (Russians) vs. problem solving (Americans)Russians have a serious attitude to life, they tend to complicate everything, Americans have a childish attitude to life, they tend to simplify everything. Situation: Your friend doesn't get on with his colleagues and because of this won't get a promotion. You think that a) He has a complicated personality (Russians), or b) He is a fool (Americans)

9. "Creative attitude to law" (Russians) vs. law obedience (Americans)It's normal to break traffic laws in Russia, then it's normal to bribe the police (Americans can't even think of bribing the police!). Explanation: When Russians break traffic laws and are stopped by the policeman, they first try to talk with him, appealing to his feelings, since Russians see in him a human being and not the embodiment of the law.

10. Collectivism (Russians) vs. individualism (Americans)Examples from Russian life: cheating on tests, which is considered normal among Russian students (When Russian students are told that American students do not normally cheat, Russian students can't understand why.). A line in the library (Several people from your group will join you in the line and nobody would object, American students would consider this not only strange but totally unacceptable).

11. Environmental protection. Its importance for the European countries.The "Green" parties and organizations or thousands of years people lived in harmony with the environment and it seemed to them that the resources of nature had no end or limit. With the industrial revolution our negative influence on nature began to increase. Large cities with thousands of cars, polluting plants and factories can be found nowadays all over the world. The by-products of their activity pollute the air we breathe the water we drink the fields where our crops are grown. So, pollution is one of the most burning problems nowadays.

Industrial development results in pollution, forests are being cut down for the need of industries in Europe and USA. The loss of the forests upsets the oxygen balance. As the result some species of animals, birds, fish and plants have disappeared and keep disappearing.

A further result of air pollution is acid rain. Acid rain basically appears when factories release high levels of sulfur into the air. Acid rain harms our environment and our quality of life.

The release of certain industrial chemicals results in a thinning of our ozone layer. The ozone layer is a part of our atmosphere that prevents most Ultraviolet rays from entering the earth's surface layer. Over the past 10 years, more and more holes were discovered over different parts of the world. Since then, skin cancer rates have skyrocketed.

Water pollution is very serious, too. Ugly rivers of dirty water polluted with factory waste, poisoned fish are all-round us. The greenhouse effect is a problem, too. It provokes global warming. The global warming can effect us in many aspects, first of all, the level of the oceans has risen..

Nowadays there are many different pressure and interests groups in many countries, which try to find solutions to the problems of pollution at the national and international level. So they are groups of people with a common interest in trying to draw the public attention to environment problems, to influence the government decisions. I'm going to tell about the organizations having the greatest influence in the European countries.

Greenpeace is a very famous pressure group. It started functioning in 1971. Its headquarters are at Amsterdam, but it operates in 25 countries worldwide. The aim of Greenpeace is to protect wildlife of toxic wastes, nuclear tests.

Friends of the Earth" (FoE) is one of the British pressure groups with an international reputation. Its general aim is to conserve the planet's resources and reduce pollution. FoE was established in 1971 and now it operated in 44 countries worldwide.

In conclusion I would like to say that ecology is our common problem. If we want to live on a healthy planet everyone of us must be aware of his responsibility before the whole mankind. But one man can't win a war.

7. Genetically Modified Foods: Curse, Blessing or other?

In my presentation I would like to throw light on the problem of GM foods. I will analyse some facts and give positive and negative aspects of using it. First of all it's important to give definition to GM products (they are also called “transgenic” or “genetically engineered”). GM are products, the genetic make-up of which was altered with the help of special viruses or bacteria. As a result GM products acquire necessary features such as insect resistance, desired nutrients, ability to survive weather extremes, etc.

Why are GM organisms considered to be dangerous by some GM-opponents?

The idea is that - though there have been no facts proving that GM foods are unsafe, neither there is sufficient evidence to prove that they are 100% safe. The GM technology is too new and the effect is likely to become seen in one or even several generations. The opponents of GM foods are confident that the production and use of GM products is harmful for both the environment and for humans. Viruses which alter the organisms fit into the structure of the genome. They can't be controlled. No one knows how such organisms can interact with the rest of the environment. These viruses can also accumulate in human organism and can affect badly the reproductive system.

On the other hand GM foods may help alleviate chronic malnutrition as the human population grows and areas under crops are not enough to supply the humanity with foods. GM foods are cheaper as well.

One has to decide himself whether to consume GM products or not and weather to consider them harmful or not. As for me, I don't want to make dangerous experiments. I would rather exclude GM products. But this is possible only if the food producers label food package. So the main challenge in the GM area nowadays is the development of the legislature base that would oblige the food producers to mark GM products.

Genetically modified food

Food made from crops in which the genetic material of the plant has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally. This process allows selected individual genes to be transferred from one organism into another. Traits that can be introduced into food crops include pest-resistance, color, freeze -resistance, and size, among others. So far , foods currently available on the international market don't present risks for human health.

GE genetic engineering is not panacea for malnutrition its just one of the tools that will significantly increase our ability to produce the quantities of food. Of course, its possible to increase crop yields by simply planting and harvesting more crops. But it can be done by planting the more densely and increasing the number of acres devoted to growing them. GE is not the only way, but it could in the future become the most efficient and economical way.

I consider that GMF after all could fail human DNA. A man is the work of nature and he should use nature resource in his vital activity. And artificial produce could be really harmful the human.

As a result I suppose we can use GMF but very seldom.

8. Challenges of the XXI Century

In my presentation I'd like to talk about the problems which are to my mind the most serious in the XXI century.

So climate change is one of the most serious issues facing our planet. Unless we take action to combat global warming, it could cause dramatic changes in the weather. In fact, it is likely to bring famine, flooding and disease on a global scale. For example, many heavily populated regions such as the Nile delta, the Netherlands and Indonesia, would be permanently flooded. Moreover, some islands, such as the Maldives in the Pacific, might disappear completely.

How can we combat global warming? The most important way is to reduce the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) by industry and motor vehicles.

The US is responsible for one quarter of the world's carbon dioxide emissions, from 4 per cent of the world population. They must cut massively on them, however, the changes would be expensive and inconvenient to implement.Another serious issue is war, especially religious or cultural wars and possible wars for fresh water. War devastates any country, but its impact is the most dramatic in developing countries. Children become orphans, healthy young men and women become cripples, food and water supplies are cut off, houses, schools and hospitals are destroyed, communication system fail.

One more thing that is worth discussing is longevity revolution. Modern medicine represents a miraculous triumph, the extra years of life will surely be treasured by the elderly and their families. The problem is that the revolutionary discoveries in technologies, making possible to live longer will provoke aging of the population. Besides, the retirement benefit programs were not designed to provide significant amount of money for extra years of payment. Another problem is that the birthrate considerably reduces. Unless measures will be taken the total population of Western Europe and Japan will reduce to about one-half of their current amount.

It is necessary to mention that at the dawn of the XXI century we can observe another trend that will have major impact on the humanity. The trend is the development of alternative sources of energy. As natural resources such as oil, gas and coal are likely to be exhausted rather soon, the mankind has to thing about the new ways of getting energy. These are solar energy, biofuel, atomic energy (which has many cons, but is extremely efficient), tidal power plants and so on.In conclusion I would like to say that one more challenge in the XXI century will be to change the value system of the global society so as the main value will be human dignity and ecological sustainability. The Earth is our common home and creating a friendly world for our children and for future generations is our common task.