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FEDERAL STATE AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL

INSTITUTION OF TERTIARY EDUCATION

«NATIONAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY HIGHER SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS»

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

Relationship between values, motivation for Instagram use and self-esteem

Master's Program «Applied Social Psychology»

Shokina Liubov

Supervisor

Bushina E.V.

Moscow, 2019



Abstract

Due to growing popularity of Instagram social network in Russia, the actuality of studying psychological differences of its users has arisen. The present research sets a goal to study the interconnection between basic human values, Instagram behavior (Instagram intensity and involvement in its use), motivation type of its use and self-esteem. 940 participants from Russia took part in the study. The study concludes that, on average, women, in comparison to men, are more involved in Instagram behavior and the number of Instagram followers affects their self-esteem. By the results of regression analysis, there were found interconnections among Instagram behavior (intensity of use and involvement in SNS community), motives of its use and self-esteem with gender particularities. “Active” Instagram motive (posting and interacting) positively affects women`s self-esteem, whereas intensity of Instagram use and involvement into Instagram community negatively influence on male`s self-esteem. Also, there were found interconnections between basic human values, Instagram behavior (intensity, involvement) and motives of Instagram use. These results are found to be congruent to those, got during previous research. However, there are also new theoretical findings that haven't been mentioned before and may serve as a base to future research.

value human instagram network



Introduction

In 1996 Dunbar remarked that primates form social bonds by grooming each other. However, grooming is considered to be highly inefficient, taking in account time needed and opportunity to interact just with one partner at time [Lui & Baumeister, 2016]. In contrast, human speech allows one to communicate to several interlocutors at once, which makes the process more efficient. Moreover, as technologies have been developing, communication online became possible - now personal information can be spread easier and faster, interaction has become more dynamic and richer.

According to Global Digital Report 2019 made by Hootsuite (2019) (social media management platform) and WeAreSocial, 57 percent of the world's population is now connected to the Internet; the average Internet user in Russia now spends about 6½ hours online (using the Internet) each day. Now it is impossible to ignore the influence of online activities on human`s life: Social Network Sites (SNS) definitely altered leisure activities, communication process, consumer behavior, so on. It`s evident, that activity type change catalyzes individual characteristic changes. Additionally, there is a problem of Internet addiction and psychological diseases has arisen due to increased engagement in SNS use [Blanchnio et. al, 2016].

Thus, during recent years psychologists have made an effort to dive into the topic of interconnection between Social Network Sites usage and individual characteristics of the users, such as motivational sphere, self-esteem, attitudes and values, so on [Lui&Baumeister, 2016; Sheldon&Bryant, 2016; Kalimeri, K., 2019]. Also, great attention to gender differences in Internet behavior was paid to - both among those who study computer sciences [Pew Research, 2007; Kisilevich et. al, 2011] and psychologists [Barker, 2009; Tifferet, 2019]. Facebook, having the biggest audience worldwide, appeared to be the most studied SNS, compared to others. However, Instagram use and its interconnection with individual preferences and differences hasn't been studied a lot. Instagram audience in Russia has grown a lot during recent years, and we can see a growing trend of its popularity (GDR, 2019). People spend much time on Instagram, it`s important to understand why they act so, what elements of this particular SNS use serve as motives and what basic human values contribute to display commitment to it.

According to uses and gratification theory, individual differences influence motivations for engaging with different media [Katz, Blumer & Gurevitch, 1974; Rubin, 1982]. Moreover, there are a few studies that report interconnection between using SNS and low self-esteem [Tadghini et al., 2013; O`Sullivan&Hussain, 2017; Valkenburg et. al., 2017] - though this fact is going to be clarified. Consequently, it is necessary to identify what values Instagram users possess in order to control the influence effect of SNS to human`s life. The gained knowledge can be applied while developing tools for well-being maintain (the major hr-trend in corporate world during recent years [Walsh, 2017]). Moreover, the anticipated study results may be useful to commercial Instagram users in the professional fields of marketing, modeling, fashion industry, retail, blogging, etc.

It`s vitally important to conduct research in this field and get to know more about Instagram behavior and its interconnection with values and self-esteem. The object of the study is users of SNS Instagram. The subjects of the study are basic human values, Instagram behavior (Instagram intensity and involvement in its use), motives of Instagram use and self-esteem. The purpose of the study is to study the interconnection between basic human values, Instagram behavior (Instagram intensity and involvement in its use), motivation type of its use and self-esteem.

Considering the lack of studies in this field and growing trend of Instagram usage in Russia the following research questions were asked and hypotheses were formulated:

RQ 1: What are the relations between basic human values and motives of Instagram use, intensity of Instagram use, Instagram Involvement?

RQ 2: How does motives of Instagram use, intensity of Instagram use, Instagram involvement influence on self-esteem among males and females?

H1: Motives of Instagram behavior, Instagram intensity, Instagram involvement are higher among females.

H2: High number of Instagram followers positively influences female self-esteem.



CHAPTER I: Theoretical part

1.1 Motives for Social Network Sites use

The term "motivation" was first used by A. Schopenhauer in his article “the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason", after which the word became part of psychological use, meaning the causes of human and animal behavior.

The problem of SNS use motives was emphasized by Z. Papacharissi and A.M. Rubin (2000). The scientists aggregated the studies conducted beforehand and used Uses-and-Gratifications theory, while planning their research. U&G theory states that “people use media to gratify needs or wants” [Kuehn, 1994; Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000]. Flaherty, Pearce and Rubin (1998) found that people use computers to gratify (a) interpersonal needs (inclusion, control, affection, pleasure, escape); (b) needs traditionally fulfilled by media (social interaction, pass time, habit, information, and entertainment); (c) other needs (i.e., time shifting and meeting people) [Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000].

The theory focuses on motives for media use, factors that influence motives and outcomes from media-related behavior.

Lucas and Sherry (2004) claimed: “No single factor is theorized to drive media use; it`s the interconnection between needs, individual differences, and social context that predicts use.” Conducted studies revealed that people tend to fulfill informational or interactive needs using media - the choice of channel depends on the availability and individual perceptions of a medium and type of need to be fulfilled. For instance, one person needs to fulfill lack of communication with other people, while other person needs to get feedback about his works.

Papacharissi and Rubin have conducted a research in the very beginning of the digital era. The purpose of the study was to find out the motives for using Internet. Motives were defined as “general dispositions that influence people`s actions taken to fulfill a need or want” [Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000]. In the result they got 5 factors of reasons for using Internet - Interpersonal Utility (help others, express oneself freely, belong to a group), Pass Time (have nothing better to do, occupy one`s time), Information Seeking (new way to do research), Convenience (easier to e-mail than tell people), Entertainment (enjoyable, just like to use it).

Spitzberg (2006) argued that motivation (for SNS usage) appears before digital skill acquisition - basically, new communication technology is foreign for the user, though one is going to be involved in its usage. This assumption becomes more clear through the results of Bryant, Sanders-Jackson and Smallwood (2006) study - adolescents were willing to study new technological means in order to maintain relationships with their friends outside the school.

Later, during 10-15 years of the beginning of 21th century many studies have been conducted in order to check the motives for SNS usage, considering features and goals of each particular SNS [Sheldon, 2008; Mull&Lee, 2014; Krause et. al., 2014] - while one SNS helps people to develop their career path, other contributes to maintaining relationships with friends. Mull and Lee (2014) studied Pinterest - visual-based social network, where people can search photo content by words (e.g. wedding décor, street photoshoot), post and sort pictures by categories (e.g. fashion, food, holidays). They factorized motives most of which haven`t been mentioned in previous studies - fashion (style, shopping), creative projects (crafts and do-it yourself projects), virtual exploration (search for new ideas), entertainment and organization (organizing pictures in one place).

Marcus (2015) found out a special feature of Instagram - in contrast to other SNS Instagram is centered on the self-promotion, but not on developing the relationships with others. The phenomenon of selfies (photos of the face made by the person him/herself) became popular and widespread with growing popularity of this platform. Much research has been conducted on the topic of selfies [Sorokowski et.al., 2015; Frosh, 2015., Highfield, 2015], and since the statistically approved fact that photos of human face get 38% more likes [Einstein Marketer, 2019], the popularity of posting selfies isn`t surprizing.

Basing on the mentioned studies, P. Sheldon and K.Bryant (2016) conducted a survey in order to find the interconnection between socio-psychological predictors (Contextual age, Narcissism), motives of Instagram use and behavioral outcomes (behavior in Instagram - time spent, using of hashtags, etc.). To investigate the motives of Instagram use, scientistmade a questionnaire based on focus group results. Exploratory factor analysis showed 4 factors - Surveillance/ knowledge about others (following friends, knowing about the lives of others), Documentation (commemoration of events), Coolness (self-promotion), Creativity (creating art and getting recognition).

1.2 Self-esteem and Social Network Sites use

Global self-esteem refers to the extent to which one likes, approves, values or prizes oneself [Tazghini & Siedlecki, 2013]. It is most frequently measured with Rosenberg's (1965) scale. The items of Rosenberg scale mainly ask the respondent to evaluate self, comparing to other people.

To date, there are two types of studies: those that state self-esteem affects one`s propensity to SNS use [e.g. Steinfield et al., 2008, Lui & Baumeister 2016] and those that have been based on the hypothesis that SNS use influences social or global self-esteem [e.g. Valkenburg & Peter, 2011, de Vries & Kühne, 2015, O`Sullivan, 2017] - both types are equally plausible.

1.2.1 Self-esteem as a predictor of Social Network Sites use

There are a number of studies that examine the relationship between self-esteem and SNS usage - the results are contradictory. Some of studies report the positive relationship between SNS usage and self-esteem [Valkenburg & Peter, 2011, Valkenburg, Koutamanis & Vossen, 2017], others - negative [Steinfield et al., 2008, Lee, Moore, & Park, 2012, de Vries et al., 2015, Lui & Baumeister, 2016]. Also, there are those that found a non-significant relationship of Internet behavior with both global and social self-esteem [Jackson et al., 2010, Lee, 2012, O`Sullivan, 2017].

According to conclusions made by Lui & Baumeister (2016) in meta-analysis of the topic, it is possible that people with low self-esteem would involve in SNS in a non-self-enhancing manner. People who possess high self-esteem are inclined to show off, demonstrating positive aspects of themselves. Whereas people with low self-esteem value SNS interactions as they are not able to interact in such way in real life: they might enjoy the opportunity to get information about other people`s lives without duty to reveal anything about themselves. There is even a term in SNS community for SNS observers, who don`t commit to interaction: lurkers.

Hence, Lui & Baumeister (2016) suggested that those, who have low self-esteem are more likely to be lurkers. Lurkers usually don`t have as many friends or partners in real life, but still possess the desire to connect socially. Although there are a number of psychological barriers, which prevent them from efficient cooperation with others - often it is fear to lose one`s face, shyness, social anxiety and similar factors which have been widely linked to low self-esteem [Crozier, 1981; Leary, 1990]. Steinfield et al. (2008) reported that since SNS mitigates the risks of embarrassing oneself or being rejected, it likely makes communication process easier (basically, it makes the process optionally unilateral). The communication mediator (personal computer, mobile phone, etc.) offers people the chance to interact without many of the threatening aspects of social interaction - a response is not expected so readily, image can be modified before demonstrating, no need to communicate face-to-face and being nervous [Steinfield et al., 2008, Lui & Baumeister 2016]. Thus, they spend much time online, keeping track of other people but not initiating communication - posting or interacting.

According to “social compensation” hypothesis, lower self-esteem is tending to be compensated by ``actively engaging in on-line activities'' [Lee, Moore, & Park, 2012]. Results of more studies about online behavior will presented further.

However, Valkenburg & Peter (2011) found evidences that may contradict to those, mentioned above - according to the rich-get-richer hypothesis, those who extraverted and are at ease in social situations are more inclined to SNS use. Valkenburg, Koutamanis & Vossen (2017) stated, that adolescents with high social self-esteem showed an increase in SNS use. Moreover, according to the results of their study, SNS use resulted in small improvements in social self-esteem. Social self-esteem is one of the strongest predictors of global self-esteem and defined as “the extent to which a person feels accepted and liked by his friends and peers and feel successful in forming and maintaining friendship” [Valkenburg et.al, 2017].

1.2.2 Social Network Sites use influence on self-esteem

Indeed, there are two contradictive positions about the consequences of SNS usage on self-esteem, both of the two points of view are empirically approved. On the one hand, SNS usage promotes self-esteem. It is a result of positive feedback that people get while using SNS. The positive feedback is a result of empirically verified tendency of human behavior - to share mainly positive information about themselves (positivity bias) [Reinecke & Trepte, 2014] and to respond positively to such kind of messages [Burke & Develin, 2016]. On the other hand, the positivity bias, according to the Social Comparison Theory [de Vries & Kühne, 2015], provokes upward social comparison - gives off the impression that others are doing better than oneself. This socio-psychological phenomenon facilitates self-esteem decrease.

According to results of H.Z. O`Sullivan`s study (2017), self-esteem scores were found to have increased with statistical significance after participants took part in the 5 minutes Facebook session. However, this particular study did not obtain data on users' Facebook behavior, that`s why there may be any other reason that could change self-esteem level.

Also, the rich-get-richer hypothesis [Valkenburg & Peter, 2011], mentioned above, states that adolescents high in self-esteem are prone to communicate online and share positive information about themselves, which contributes to receiving positive feedback, which further boost their self-esteem.

However, it`s important to mention, that Blachnio et al. (2016) paid attention on statistical differences between ordinary Facebook users and both addicted and intensive users: low self-esteem is related to increased Facebook use and SNS addiction. The causes of this type of behavior lie in attempt to enhance one`s mood, trying to dive into SNS use. The same tendency was marked by Valkenburg et al. (2017) - when social media use becomes intense or addictive it comes to negative relationship global and social self-esteem.

1.2.3 Features of Internet behavior and its interconnection with self-esteem

When we are speaking about on-line activities, we mean time spent on using SNS [Mehdizadeh, 2010], feeling of connectedness to SNS [Tazghini & Siedlecki, 2013, Sheldon & Bryant, 2016] and online behavior. For instance, S. Tazghini, K.L. Siedlecki (2013), studying online behavior on college students, Facebook users, reported self-esteem to be negatively correlated with feelings of connectedness to Facebook [Ellison, 2007] and spending more time viewing page comparing to commenting on pages.

SNS give an opportunity to see the number of friends/followers, making it an accessible measure of social capital [Lui & Baumeister 2016]. Thus, the psychologists studied the interconnections between the number of friends and global self-esteem and the results come to be contradictory. Lee et al. (2012) argue that individuals with low self-esteem will be trying to compensate it by seeking more friends on Facebook in order to (a) increase their sense of belonging and (b) to create a perception of popularity [O`Sullivan, 2017]. In contrast, Lui & Baumeister (2016) claim that people with high self-esteem had more SNS friends than those with low self-esteem. S. Tazghini, K.L. Siedlecki (2013) haven't found the correlation between self-esteem and the number of friends.

According to Barker (2009), females are more likely to use SNS to communicate with peers, entertain, pass time (the means are higher for those who possess high positive self-esteem). Whereas males are more likely to use SNS to seek social compensation, Social Identity Gratifications, and learning (the means are higher for those who possess high negative collective self-esteem).

It`s widely known that Instagram, being a visual-based social network site, stimulates people for selfie-posting (selfie is defined as defined as “an image of oneself taken by oneself using a digital camera especially for posting on social networks” [Gilbert, 2014]). A search of #selfie on the SNS Instagram resulted in almost 400 million selfie images. Findings revealed self-esteem to play an integral role in understanding selfie-posting behavior [Pounders, et. al, 2016]. Specifically, people are motivated to post selfies in order to enhance their self-esteem, “likes” are the social web-approvals of the photo. Findings also revealed that the number of “likes” promotes self-esteem. Thus, self-esteem is both a motivator (predictor) and outcome of selfie-posting.

Taking into account the empirical data, discussed above, following research question was stated: “How does motives of Instagram use, intensity of Instagram use, Instagram involvement influence on self-esteem among males and females?”

1.3 Social Network Sites usage and Basic human values

1.3.1 Values - theoretical framework

Most researchers agreed that values are of cultural origin and are cultural ideals. [Cherkasova, 2012; Lebedeva, Tatarko, 2007]. So, Florence Kluckhohn and Fred Strodtbeck (1961) were the first in cross-cultural psychology, who ??began to study values. They defined values as complex, in a certain way grouped principles, giving a harmonious and directed to a variety of motives of human thinking and activity in solving common human problems. [Lebedeva, Tatarko, 2007]. The basic statements underlying this theory are:

1. "There is a limited number of common human problems for which all peoples must at all times find some solution".

2. "While there is variability in solutions of all the problems, it is neither limitless nor random but is definitely variable within a range of possible solutions".

3. "All alternatives of all solutions are present in all societies at all times but are differentially preferred". [Hills, 2002]

After Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck first presented their theory, psychologists began to demonstrate increasing interest to values ??as a study subject. Many approaches to the cross-cultural study of values ??were based precisely on the theory, mentioned above. Among the scientists who made a huge contribution to this field are M. Rokich and S. Schwartz.

It should be stated, that there are two key vectors of the values study - cultural and individual. Most of the temporary research ??of values in the individual level is based on the M. Rokich study. He defined values ??as the guiding principles of life. [Lebedeva, Tatarko, 2007]

Based on Rokich studies, S. Schwartz developed two approaches to the study of values - individual and cultural. According to Schwarz (1992), values are “desirable, trans-situational goals, varying in importance that serve as guiding principles in people's lives” [Kalimeri et.al, 2019]. As part of the individual approach, Schwartz argues that the type of motivation in which values ??are contained is the main substantive aspect that separates values ??from each other. Thus, in accordance with previous studies, Schwartz classified values ??into ten different types of human motivation:

· Self-determination - this value is driven by the biological need for self-regulation and self-control, the determining goal is research activity, independent thinking and freedom of choice;

· Stimulation - the motivational goal is the need for deep experiences and newness, this goal is driven by the biological need to maintain an optimal level of activity;

· Hedonism - the pursuit of pleasure and sensual pleasure;

· Achievement - the goal is personal success, entailing social approval;

· Power - the main goal is social prestige, authority, and a sense of dominance;

· Security - the need for security for oneself and people around, a sense of belonging, stability and order;

· Conformity - the main motivational goal is to counteract those factors that can disrupt order in society or contradict social expectations;

· Tradition - for a person who possess this value is important moderation, humility, maintenance of rituals and traditions, adherence to customs existing in culture;

· Benevolence - the motivational goal of this value is well-being of loved ones, a focus on positive interaction;

· Universalism - a focus on social well-being in general, equality.

Later, Schwartz and his colleague Bilski developed a theory of dynamic relationships between the leading types of human motivation. According to this theory, the behavior strategy of an individual directly depends on the way values ??interact. According to the authors, the values ??of Conservation (Security, Conformity, Tradition) and values ??of Openness to change (Stimulation, Self-regulation) are in conflict, as well as values ??of Self-enhancement (Universalism, Benevolence) and Self-transcendence (power, achievement, hedonism). However, other values ??do not counteract each other [Schwartz, 2012].

To confirm his theoretical conclusions, Schwartz conducted empirical research in 48 different countries, testing the universality or particularity of value types, and in 67 countries, testing the theory of cultural values. The sample consisted of students and teachers (as a reflection of the trend of stability and variability of values in culture). As a result of research, Schwarz's assumptions about 10 types of values and their dynamic interaction were confirmed [Schwartz, 2012].

1.3.2 Basic human values and Internet behavior

Although psychologists on a general level are agreed on values, they may not be able to agree on how these values work out for a specific domain or activity (particularly Internet behavior). Moreover, not many studies have been conducted yet to clarify the influence of values to Internet behavior and SNS use specifically.

In the computational social science domain, there have been a few attempts to predict human values from digital data: (a) the analysis of associations between Global Human values and word use in social media [Chen, et. al, 2014]; (b) the interconnection between Facebook Likes and Basic Human values [Youyou et al., 2015]. Both of the studies reported low prediction scores.

Malin Brännback, Shahrokh Nikou, Harry Bouwman (2017) conducted a study, focused of interplay of attitudes, values, trying and internet behavior. The sample of the study consisted of digital natives (millennials, born after 1990), whose personal values more than any other group in society affected by social media [Brännback et. al, 2017].

In this study were used several psychological constructs that should be cleared. Domain specific values are defined as those that “are related to the consequences (benefits) of using a product, service or a particular action” and global values “are considered to be independent of concrete objects and are more stable and permanent than the domain-specific values”. Global values do not specify exact activities (domains) a person considers desirable, thus they affect behavior indirectly, whereas domain-specific values appear to impact attitude and behavior directly [Brännback et. al, 2017]. To measure Global values and domain-specific values, List of values (LOV) was used, adopted from Kahle (1983) and Veroff (1981).

The authors supposed: (a) global values positively influence the digital natives` behavior to interact with social media, (b) domain-specific values positively values positively influence the digital natives' behavior to interact with social media, (c) attitude towards trying moderates the influence of domain-specific values and global values on digital natives' behavior to interact with social media. The results showed that (a) the global values, has no direct effect on the behavior of digital natives to interact with social media; (b) domain-specific values relevant to hedonic values (fun and enjoyment) has been found to positively impact the behavior of the subjects to interact with social media; (c) attitude toward trying positively mediates the paths between the domain-specific values, global values and interactive behavior with social media.

Also, Kalimeri et. al (2019) have made a study, during which the data of 7633 participants (USA) and their electronic devices was collected. A special application was collecting the browse data and smartphone activity (application usage) during one month, later the participants fulfilled the questionnaires, Basic Human Values questionnaire by Schwartz was among them. The results of the study revealed the interconnection between possessing values and usage of particular applications and web-sites, among the applications was visual-based SNS Instagram. Those who possess the value of Achievement, Hedonism, Universalism and cluster Openness, are more inclined to Instagram use [Kalimeri et. al, 2019].

The present study, taking into account the results of previous research, raises the following research question: “What are the relations between basic human values and motives of Instagram use, intensity of Instagram use, Instagram Involvement?”.

1.4 Gender differences in Internet behavior and Social Network Sites use

In 2009 Barker stated that there haven`t been uncovered gender differences in SNS use yet. However, through last 10 years several general findings about specific of gender in Internet behavior have been revealed.

According to meta-analysis made by S. Tifferet in April 2019, there are a number of key features that have been empirically approved more than once. For instance, in Greenwood`s et al. study (2016) was reported that females use SNS more frequent than males do, particularly they are more involved in Facebook use (women - 83%, men - 75%), Instagram use (38% vs. 26%), Pinterest (45% vs. 17%). In contrast, women are less prone to use LinkedIn (27% vs. 31%), Twitter use is equivalent (25% vs. 24%). These differences are unsurprising - at dawn of social media use studying, it was noted that boys are more focused on instrumental motives: information seeking and entertainment (e.g. Internet gaming), whereas girls are inclined to use relational feeling-oriented aspects of social media (maintaining relationship, share deep feelings) [Gross et. al, 2002; Jonier et. al, 2005, Baker, 2009, Kisilevich, et. al, 2011].

Also, S. Tifferet reported about several research that claimed females to be more active on SNS than males, measured in time spent on SNS. Particularly, women post more photos, status updates and messages [Tifferet, 2019].

Males are generally less willing to disclose their emotions than females, both offline and online. Also, according to the Western studies, student users of SNS MySpace women are more likely to disclose their interests. Though, there was a study, conducted in the Russian context - the results revealed that Russian females disclose substantially more information in general across nearly the entire age range [Kisilevich, et. al, 2011]. Thus, it was assumed that females would be more active in Instagram on the whole, consequently women are supposed to have higher average meanings by scales of Instagram motivation and Instagram behavior (intensity and involvement) (Hypothesis 1).

In addition, there were found some features of female`s behavior - due to high cultural value of women`s attractiveness in Russia, users-women are more emotionally attached to their profile appearance in SNS, that besides affect their self-esteem [Kisilevich, et. al, 2011].

Speaking about SNS friend`s number, in the Western context, it was found that men tended to have more “friends” than women, this phenomenon may be caused by female`s tendency to care more about whom their “friends” really are. However, in Russian SNS community, it was found that women users seemed to have slightly more friends on average (mean = 15.366, SD = 8.839) then men (mean = 14.795, SD = 9.741) [Kisilevich et. al, 2011]. These studies served a basis of Hypothesis 2: it was supposed that the number of followers positively relates to female self-esteem.

1.5 Instagram overview

The most attractive SNS for research has been Facebook - it was founded in 2004 and since then attracted more than 2 billion of active users [Sergeeva J., 2018]. Much research has been conducted in order to understand the characteristics of Facebook users. However, other SNS haven`t been studied so widely yet, due to its novelty and constant update.

Instagram is a visual-based social network, that allows users to take and share photo and video content. Besides basic functional, Instagram allows to edit photos using special filters that allow users to modify the colors and resolutions of the photographs before posting, share geolocation, make online-translations, send direct massages.

Instagram app appeared in App Store on the 6th of October, 2010. Each year the amount of active Instagram users grows by 5% and has already reached the mark of 1 billion. This fact made this platform one of the fastest-growing social networks nowadays [Constine J., 2018]. Yuval Ben-Itzhak, (CEO of Socialbakers marketing company) claims that Instagram users are much more engaged than Facebook users, that makes the platform more attractive for brands to advertise [Socialbakers, 2019]. However, some experts see a limitation of Instagram in being a mobile-based platform [Sheldon & Bryant, 2016], though it covers the demand of its target audience.

Speaking about the Instagram audience, 50,3 % of users are females, 71 % of audience are under 35 years old. Russian audience is 37 million people - the 6th place worldwide, however, according to Global Digital Report 2019, Russia has the biggest quarter-on-quarter (QOQ) audience growth worldwide (+15,6%).



CHAPTER II: Methods

2.1 Operationalization of terms

Social Network Sites (SNSs) - Web sites where users can create a profile and connect that profile to others to form an explicit personal network [Pew Research, 2007].

Instagram intensity - “self-reported assessment of Facebook behavior, designed to measure the extent to which the participant was actively engaged in Facebook activities: the amount of time spent on Facebook on a typical day.” [Ellison, 2007].

Instagram involvement - “the extent to which the participant was emotionally connected to

Facebook and the extent to which Facebook was integrated into her daily activities”. [Ellison, 2007].

“Active” motive of Instagram use - a group of statements, the result of primary factor analysis conducted on “Instagram motivation use” scale [Sheldon & Bryant, 2016]. This group includes 15 items:

· I use social network site Instagram to share my life with other people.

· I use social network site Instagram to depict my life through photos.

· I use social network site Instagram to commemorate an event.

· I use social network site Instagram to provide “visual status updates” for my friends.

· I use social network site Instagram to document the world around me.

· I use social network site Instagram to remember special events.

· I use social network site Instagram to show off my photography skills.

· I use social network site Instagram to remember something important.

· I use social network site Instagram to become popular.

· I use social network site Instagram to create art.

· I use social network site Instagram because it is cool.

· I use social network site Instagram to self-promote.

· I use social network site Instagram to interact with my friends.

· I use social network site Instagram o find people with whom I have common interests.

· I use social network site Instagram because it is fun.

The general idea of “Active” motive - Instagram use for making some kind of activity in the SNS.

“Passive” motive of Instagram use - a group of statements, the result of primary factor analysis conducted on “Instagram motivation use” scale [Sheldon & Bryant, 2016]. This group includes 5 items:

· I use social network site Instagram to creep through other people's posts.

· I use social network site Instagram to see what other people share.

· I use social network site Instagram to follow my friends.

· I use social network site Instagram to “like” my followers' photos.

· I use social network site Instagram to see “visual status updates” of my friends.

The general idea of “Passive” motive - Instagram use for information consumption.



2.2 Participants and procedure

Figure 1 - Age of the participants (N=940)

The questionnaire was posted in social networks (Instagram, Vkontakte), respondents took part in the study voluntarily. The sample consists of 940 respondents: 70 males and 870 females. The age of the study participants varies from 11 to 55 years old (Mean = 19,66, SD = 4,69) (Figure 1).

Distribution by education level of the respondents is represented below (Figure 2) - most of them have Higher education (37%).

Figure 2 - Education level of the participants (N = 940)



Figure 3 - Religious affiliation of the participants (N=940).

The largest part of the participants considers themselves non-religious (59%), just 5% of the sample consider themselves religious (Figure 3).

Most of the participants evaluated their income on level “Enough money for food and clothing, but durable things (TV, refrigerator) is a problem” and higher (84%). The more detailed report is presented below - on the Figure 4.

Figure 4 - Income level of the participants (N=940).



2.3 Materials

Self-esteem

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was used to measure individual`s global evaluation of the self [Rosenberg, 1978]. The measure consists of 10 items among them 5 are positively keyed (“I am able to do things as well as most other people”) and 5 are negatively keyed (“I certainly feel useless at times”). Respondents are asked to indicate their level of agreement with the statement on a 4-point Likert scale (from strongly agree to strongly disagree). The scale was observed to have internal consistency of 0.73 in this study.

Basic Human Values

Abbreviated questionnaire of Schwarz PVQ-21 [Shalom, S., et. al, 2012] The scale contains 21 items, allowing to assess the severity of 10 values ??of the updated theory of Schwartz: Self-direction (á = 0,40); Stimulation (á = 0,69); Achievement(á = 0,78); Hedonism (á = 0,58); Security (á = 0,43); Tradition (á = 0,10); Conformity (á = 0,53); Benevolence (á = 0,57); Universalism (á = 0,35). This questionnaire contains 2 questions for each of the values, but for this reason, the wording of the question contains more than one statement. In accordance with Schwarz theory, these values are united in values of a higher order: Self-transcendence, Self-enhancement (Going beyond the limits of the Self). Conservation, Openness to change. The participants are asked to evaluate the degree (6-point Likert scale) to which the described in the statement person is alike to him/her.

Instagram involvement & intensity

The scale of Instagram usage intensity was adapted from the Facebook Intensity Scale (Ellison et al., 2007). It was adapted by replacing the word “Facebook” by “Instagram”, for example, the item “Facebook is a part of my everyday activity” was replaced by “Instagram is a part of my everyday activity”, no other changes have been done. The internal consistency of original study was 0.83, in the present study the scale has the consistency of 0.82. The scale Instagram Intensity is included in the scale Instagram Involvement, though it was analyzed apart also. It is consisted of a question: “In the past week, on average, approximately how many minutes per day have you spent on Facebook?”.

Motivation of Instagram use

The questions for the scale “Motives for Instagram use” was adapted from the study made before by Sheldon et. al. (2016). The questionnaire consists of 20 questions, for example “I use social network Instagram to interact with my friends”, “I use social network Instagram to depict my life through photos”. The participants are supposed to answer, how often they used Instagram for the given reasons (from 1 = never to 5 = always). The adjusted scale was observed to have adequate internal consistency in this study (á = 0.87). Factor analysis was conducted to extract motives for Instagram use. This resulted in two factors - “Active” motives (á = 0.88) and “Passive” motives (á = 0.73) (Table 1).

Socio-demographic questions

Socio-demographic questions include the information about sex, age, income, religion and education. The options suggested to the respondents in questions about religion, income and education are presented in the section “Participants and procedure”.

2.4 Data analysis

The collected empirical data was processed using the statistical package SPSS 22.0. To determine the internal consistency of the psychological scales, the Cronbach`s á coefficient was calculated. Factor analysis was conducted to extract factors of “Motivation of Instagram use” scale. The factor analysis used a principal component solution and varimax rotation. Student's t-test was used to compare the mean values of two independent samples (male and female). Secondary statistical processing procedures were also used - simple regression analysis and multiple sequential regression analysis.



CHAPTER III: Results

To create subscales of “Motivation of Instagram use” questionnaire primary Factor analysis was conducted. It resulted with two factors - “Active” motive (á = 0.88, disp. = 29,53 %) and “Passive” motive (á = 0.73, disp. = 12,66 %). The results are presented below in Table 1 (in Appendix A the translated on Russian results are presented).

Table 1. Motivation of Instagram use - Primary factor analysis

	Loading
Factor 1 - Active (á = 0.88, disp. = 29,53 %)
I use social network site Instagram to share my life with other people.	.75
I use social network site Instagram to depict my life through photos.	.75
I use social network site Instagram to commemorate an event.	.73
I use social network site Instagram to provide “visual status updates” for my friends.	.72
I use social network site Instagram to document the world around me.	.70
I use social network site Instagram to remember special events.	.68
I use social network site Instagram to show off my photography skills.	.60
I use social network site Instagram to remember something important.	.59
I use social network site Instagram to become popular.	.54
I use social network site Instagram to create art.	.52
I use social network site Instagram because it is cool.	.50
I use social network site Instagram to self-promote.	.49
I use social network site Instagram to interact with my friends.	.45
I use social network site Instagram o find people with whom I have common interests.	.45
I use social network site Instagram because it is fun.	.42
Factor 2 - Passive (á = 0.73, disp. = 12,66 %)
I use social network site Instagram to creep through other people's posts.	.67
I use social network site Instagram to see what other people share.	.66
I use social network site Instagram to follow my friends.	.61
I use social network site Instagram to “like” my followers' photos.	.57
I use social network site Instagram to see “visual status updates” of my friends.	.49

The means and standard deviations by scales Self-esteem, Instagram behavior (Instagram involvement, Instagram intensity, Motivation of Instagram usage, Motivation “active”, Motivation “passive” and Basic Human Values) are presented below in Table 2.

Table 2. Measures of central tendencies (N=940).

Scales	M (SD)	Max
Self-esteem	2.76 (0.63)	4.00
Instagram involvement	3.68 (0.98)	5.00
Instagram intensity	3.61 (1.13)	5.00
Motivation of Instagram use	2.90 (0.88)	5.00
Motivation “active”	2.71 (0.80)	4.92
Motivation “passive”	3.57 (0.67)	5.00
Stimulation (Value)	4.25 (1.08)	6.00
Self-direction (Value)	4.60 (0.89)	6.00
Universalism (Value)	4.62 (0.76)	6.00
Benevolence (Value)	4.51 (0.94)	6.00
Conformity (Value)	3.28 (1.11)	6.00
Tradition (Value)	3.26 (1.00)	6.00
Security (Value)	4.50 (1.00)	6.00
Achievement (Value)	4.50 (1.11)	6.00
Hedonism (Value)	4.71 (0.91)	6.00

The next step of analysis was to test Hypothesis 1, T-test for independent samples was used.

H1: Motives of Instagram behavior, Instagram intensity, Instagram involvement are higher among female sample.

As it can be seen on Table 3, average meanings by scales of Instagram behavior (Intensity and Involvement), motives of Instagram behavior of female sample are significantly higher than those, that are for male`s sample. Thus, Hypothesis 1 is approved. However, it is interesting to notice that average meaning by Self-esteem scale is higher for men.



Table 3. Means comparison of Self-esteem, “Passive” and “Active” Instagram motives, Instagram intensity and Instagram involvement scales divided by gender

	Mean (SD) for male`s sample	Mean (SD) for female`s sample	T	P-value
Self-esteem	3.02 (0.53)***	2.65 (0.49)***	-5.97	.000
“Active” motive	2.44 (0.81)**	2.73 (0.79)**	3.00	.003
“Passive” motive	3.31 (0.78)**	3.59 (0.65)**	3.45	.001
Instagram intensity	2.80 (1.19)***	3.68 (1.10)***	6.41	.000
Instagram involvement	2.96 (1.07)***	3.74 (0.95)***	6.59	.000
*ð<0.05; ** ð<0.01; *** ð<0.001.

Now we are moving to the second hypothesis testing.

H2: High number of Instagram followers positively influence female self-esteem.

Getting to the study of the second hypothesis, bivariate correlational analysis among on general sample Self-esteem, motives of Instagram, intensity of Instagram use, Instagram involvement and quantity of Instagram followers was conducted. The results showed no significant relations (Table 4).

Table 4. Correlations between Self-esteem, motives of Instagram use and intensity of Instagram use, Instagram involvement and quantity of Instagram followers

	Followers
Self-Esteem	.00
“Active”	.01
“Passive”	-.04
Instagram intensity	.03
Instagram involvement	.05
*p<0.05; **p<0.01

After conducting analysis of general sample, bivariate Pearson correlation was applied to samples, filtered by gender - males and females. The results are presented below (Table 5, 6). It can be seen, that there are no significant correlations for male sample (Table 5).

Table 5. Correlations between Self-esteem, motives of Instagram use and intensity of Instagram use, Instagram involvement and quantity of Instagram followers (male)

	Followers
Self-Esteem	-.17
“Active”	-.04
“Passive”	-.05
Instagram intensity	.13
Instagram involvement	.17
*p<0.05; **p<0.01

In contrast, there are several significant correlations between Instagram followers and Self-esteem (.12**), “Active” motive of Instagram use (.18**), Instagram intensity (.11**) and Involvement in Instagram community (Table 6).

Table 6. Correlations between Self-esteem, motives of Instagram use and intensity of Instagram use, Instagram involvement and quantity of Instagram followers (female)

	Followers
Self-Esteem	.12**
“Active”	.18**
“Passive”	-.03
Instagram intensity	.11**
Instagram involvement	.12**
*p<0.05; **p<0.01

Simple regression analysis was conducted to examine whether number of Instagram followers influence on female self-esteem. Filter by gender was applied due to correlations have shown significant values only for female sample.

The results showed number of Instagram followers to be a significant predictor of self-esteem for females' sample (.12***), that means that high number of Instagram followers positively related to high female self-esteem (Table 7). Thus, Hypothesis 2 was also approved.

Table 7. Multiple regression analysis of Instagram follower`s number on Self-esteem

	Self-Esteem (female)
Number of Instagram followers (â)	.12***
R²	.02
*ð<0.05; ** ð<0.01; *** ð<0.001; â - standardized regression equation coefficients; R² - dispersion ratio.

Now we are moving to answering the first Research question.

RQ 1: What are the relations between basic human values and motives of Instagram use, intensity of Instagram use, Instagram Involvement?

The first step on the way of finding answers on the first research question, Pearson correlations among Basic Human Values and scales of Instagram behavior were examined (Table 8). We found that:

· Security is positively correlated with both motives of Instagram use - “Active” (.07*) and “Passive” (.09**);

· Benevolence also has positive association with motives of Instagram use - “Active” (.17**) and “Passive” (.15**);

· Universalism positively related to Instagram usage motives - “Active” (.10*) and “Passive” (.11**);

· Self-determination positively associated with “Active” motive of Instagram use (.22**);

· Self-transcendence also positively relates to “Active” motive of Instagram use;

· Hedonism positively relates to all Instagram behavior scales - “Active” motive (.24**), “Passive” motive (.09**), Instagram intensity (.11**) and Instagram involvement (.14**);

· Achievement has positive interconnection with “Active” (.24**) and “Passive” (.09**) motives and Instagram intensity (.13**).

· Conformity has negative relationship with Instagram intensity (-.07*).

· Tradition doesn`t have significant correlations.

Table 8. Correlations between motives of Instagram use, Instagram behavior (intensity of Instagram use, Instagram involvement) and values (N=940)

	SE	BE	UN	SD	ST	HE	AC	CO	TR
“Active”	.07*	.17**	.10**	.22**	.20**	.24**	.24**	.06	-.08
“Passive”	.09**	.15**	.11**	-.04	.03	.17**	.09**	.06	.04
Instagram intensity	.03	-.02	-.01	-.04	.04	.11**	.13**	-.07*	.01
Instagram involvement	.06	.02	.01	-.02	-.02	.14**	.03	-.05	-.04
* ð<0.05; ** ð<0.01

Next, Multiple regression analysis of values on Instagram Intensity, Instagram involvement and motives of Instagram use was conducted. (Table 9).

According to the results of multiple regression analysis, the following results were gained (Table 9):

· Benevolence predicts both “Active” (.09**, R² = .12) and “Passive” (.11**, R² = .07) motives of Instagram use;

· Universalism is a predictor of “Passive” motive (.08*, R² = .07);

· Self-determination positively influence on “Active” (.12*, R² = .12) motive, and negatively influence on “Passive” (-.17*, R² = .07) motive and Instagram intensity (-.10*, R² = .03);

· Hedonism positively influence on all the scales of Instagram behavior - “Active” (.13***, R² = .12) motive, “Passive” (.18***, R² = .07) motive, Instagram intensity (.11**, R² = .03) and Instagram involvement (.16***, R² = .03);

· Achievement predicts “Active” motive of Instagram use (.13***, R² = .12);

· Conformity has positive interrelation with “Active” motive (.09*, R² = .12) and negative with Instagram intensity (-.10**, R² = .03);

Other Basic Human Values do not have significant connection with indicators of Instagram behavior.

Table 9. Multiple regression analysis of values on motivation of Instagram usage, Instagram Involvement and Intensity of Instagram use. (N=940)

	“Active”	“Passive”	Instagram intensity	Instagram involvement
SE (â)	.00	.02	.04	.06
BE (â)	.09*	.11**	-.05	.01
UN (â)	.01	.08*	.01	.01
SD (â)	.12**	-.17**	-.10*	-.07
ST (â)	.05	-.05	.04	-.02
HE (â)	.13***	.18***

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