Psychologist Zigmund Freud
Describe the life and research works of famous psychologist Zigmund Freud. His theory of the unconscious, interpretation of dreams. Critical evalution of Freud. His work as a pioneering scientist, the theory of psychoanalysis. Freud's Followers.
| Рубрика | Психология |
| Вид | реферат |
| Язык | английский |
| Дата добавления | 24.09.2014 |
| Размер файла | 30,6 K |
Отправить свою хорошую работу в базу знаний просто. Используйте форму, расположенную ниже
Студенты, аспиранты, молодые ученые, использующие базу знаний в своей учебе и работе, будут вам очень благодарны.
Размещено на http://allbest.ru
CONTENT
Introduction
1. Pages of life
1.1 The childhood
1.2 Independent life
1.3 Early carrier
1.4 The last years
2.Research activities
2.1 "The Unconscious Mind
2.2 "The Psyche
2.3 "Psychosexual Stages"
2.4 "Dream Analysis
3.Critical Evaluation of Freud
4. The Claim to Scientific Status
5. Freud's herritage
5.1 Freud's Followers
5.2 Freud's Museum
5.3 Lasting Legacy
Conclusion
Bibliogrphy
INTRODUCTION
Psychology's most famous figure is also one of the most influential and controversial thinkers of the twentieth century. Sigmund Freud's work and theories helped shape our views of childhood, personality, memory, sexuality and therapy. Other major thinkers have contributed work that grew out of Freud's legacy, while others developed new theories out of opposition to his ideas.
The main idea of the topic is to describe the life and research works of famous psychologist Zigmund Freud.
The aim of this reference is to make people interested in psychology and enormous person as Zigmund Freud and his great legaсy for us.
Tasks:
- to study psychoanalysis of Freud
- to explore his works
- to observe interesting facts of Freud's life in details
- to determine the value of Freud's legacy
- to increase own outlook
"Religion is an illusion and it derives its strength from the fact that it falls in with our instinctual desires". - Sigmund Freud
1. THE PAGES OF LIFE
1.1 The childhood
Sigismund Schlomo Freud was born on May 6, 1856 in Freiberg, Moravia. His father, Jakob, was a wool merchant with two children from a previous marriage. His mother, Amalia (pic-
tured above), was twenty years younger than her husband. Sigismund was her first child.As his mother's eldest child, he was also her particular favorite, her "golden Siggie." Amalia had high hopes for her son. "I have found," Freud later said, "that people who know that they are preferred or favored by their mothers give evidence in their lives of a peculiar self-reliance and an unshakable optimism which often bring actual success to their possessors. "When he was four, his father's business failed and the family left Freiberg for Vienna, Austria. Young Freud excelled in school, placing at the top of his class for seven out of eight years[11].
1.2 Independent life
He changed his name to Sigmund in 1878 and later earned a degree in medicine from the University of Vienna.Freud was a good student, and very ambitious. Medicine and law were the professions then open to Jewish men, and in 1873 he entered the University of Vienna medi -cal school. He was interested in science above all; the idea of practicing medicine was slightly repugnant to him[3]. He hoped to go into neurophysiological research, but pure research was hard to manage in those days unless you were independently wealthy. Freud was engaged and needed to be able to support a family before he could marry, and so he determined to go into private practice with a specialty in neurology. During his training he befriended Josef Bre uer, another physician and physiologist[9]. They often discussed medical cases together and one of Breuer's would have a lasting effect on Freud. Known as Anna O., this patient was a young woman suffering from what was then called hysteria. She had temporary paralysis, could not speak her native German but could speak French and English, couldn't drink water even when thirsty, and so on. Breuer discovered that if he hypnotized her, she would talk of things she did not remember in the conscious state, and afterwards her symptoms were reli-eved- thus it was called "the talking cure." Freud went to Paris for further study under Jean-Martin Charcot, a neurologist known all over Europe for his studies of hysterics and use of hypnosis.In 1886, Freud returned to Vienna, opened a private practice specializing in nervous and brain disorders, and married. He tried hypnotism with his hysteric and neurotic patients, but gradually discarded the practice.He found he could get patients to talk just by putting them in a relaxing position (the couch) and encouraging them to say whatever came into their heads (free association)[6]. He could then analyze what they had remembered or expressed and determine what traumatic events in their past had caused their current suffering.
1.3Early Career
Sigmund Freud was born in the Austrian town of Freiberg on May 6, 1856. When he was four years old his family moved to Vienna, the town where he would live and work for most of the remainder of his life. He received his medical degree in 1881 and became engaged to marry the following year. His marriage produced six children--the youngest of whom, Anna, was to herself become a distinguished psychoanalyst[3]. After graduation, Freud promptly set up a private practice and began treating various psychological disorders. Considering himself first and foremost a scientist, rather than a doctor, he endeavored to understand the journey of human knowledge and experience.Early in his career, Freud became greatly influenced by the work of his friend and Viennese colleague, Josef Breuer, who had discovered that when he encouraged a hysterical patient to talk uninhibitedly about the earliest occurrences of the symptoms, the symptoms sometimes gradually abated. Inspired by Breuer, Freud posited that neuroses had their origins in deeply traumatic experiences that had occurred in the patient's past. He believed that the original occurrences had been forgotten and hidden from conscious ness. His treatment was to empower his patients to recall the experience and bring it to consciousness, and in doing so, confront it both intellectually and emotionally[12]. He believed one could then discharge it and rid oneself of the neurotic symptoms. Freud and Breuer published their theories and findings in Studies in Hysteria (1895).
1.4 The last years
By mid-September 1939, Freud's cancer of the jaw was causing him increasingly severe pain and had been declared to be inoperable. The last book he would read, Balzac's La Peau de Chagrin, prompted reflections on his own increasing frailty and a few days later he turned to his doctor, friend and fellow refugee, Max Schur, reminding him that they had previously discussed the terminal stages of his illness: "Schur, you remember our 'contract' not to leave me in the lurch when the time had come. Now it is nothing but torture and makes no sense." When Schur replied that he had not forgotten, Freud said, "I thank you," and then "Talk it over with Anna, and if she thinks it's right, then make an end of it.[11]" Anna Freud wanted to postpone her father's death, but Schur convinced her it was pointless to keep him alive and on 21 and 22 September administered doses of morphine that resulted in Freud's death on 23 September 1939.Three days after his death Freud's body was cremated at the Golders Green Crematorium in North London, with Harrods of Knightsbridge acting as funeral directors, on the instructions of his son, Ernst. Funeral orations were given by Ernest Jones and the Austrian author Stefan Zweig. Freud's ashes were later placed in the crematorium's Ernest George Columbarium. They rest on a plinth designed by his son, Ernst, in a sealed[9] ancient Greek urn that Freud had received as a gift from Princess Bonaparte and which he had kept in his study in Vienna for many years. After his wife, Martha, died in 1951, her ashes were also placed in the urn[13].
2. REACH ACTIVITIES
After much work together, Breuer ended the relationship, feeling that Freud placed too much emphasis on the sexual origins of a patient's neuroses and was completely unwilling to consider other viewpoints. Freud continued to refine his own argument and in 1900, after a serious period of self-analysis, published The Interpretation of Dreams. He followed it in 1901 with The Psychopathology of Everyday Life and in 1905 with Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. The great reverence that was later given to Freud's theories was not in evidence for some years. Most of his contemporaries felt, like Breuer, that his emphasis on sexuality was either scandalous or overplayed. In 1909, he was invited to give a series of lectures in the United States. It was after these visits and the publication of his 1916 book, Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, that his fame grew exponentially[10].
2.1 “The Unconscious Mind”
Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he described the features of mind's structure and function.In this model the conscious mind (everything we are aware of) is seen as the tip of the iceberg, with the unconscious mind a repository of a `cauldron' of primitive wishes and impulse kept at bay and mediated by the preconscious area.However, Freud found that some events and desires were often too frightening or painful for his patients to acknowledge[7]. Freud believed such information was locked away in a region he called the unconscious mind. This happens through the process of repression.Sigmund Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, and a primary assumption of Freudian theory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a greater degree than people suspect. Indeed, the goal of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious.
2.2 “The Psyche”
Freud (1923) later developed a more structural model of the mind comprising the entities id, ego and superego (what Freud called “the psychic apparatus”). These are not physical areas within the brain, but rather hypothetical conceptualizations of important mental functions.Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level according to the pleasure principle. The is contains two kinds of biological instincts (or dives) which Freud called Eros and Thanatos[6].
Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs life-sustaining activities such as respiration, eating and sex (Freud, 1925). The energy created by the life instincts is known as libido.In contrast.
Thanatos or death instinct, is viewed as a set of destructive forces present in all human beings (Freud, 1920). When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed as aggression and violence. Freud believed that Eros or stronger than Thanatos, thus enabling people to survive rather than self-destruct.The ego develops from the id during infancy. The egos goal is to satisfy the demands of the id in a safe a socially acceptable way. In contrast to the id the ego follows the reality principle as it operates in both the conscious and unconscious mind.The superego develops during early childhood (when the child identifies with the same sex parent) and is responsible for ensuring moral standards are followed. The Superego operates on the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible and acceptable manner.The superego can make a person feel guilty if rules are not followed. When there is conflict between the goals of the id and superego the ego must act as a referee and mediate this conflict. The ego can deploy various defence mechanisms (Freud, 1894, 1896) to prevent it from becoming overwhelmed by anxiety[5].
2.3 “Psychosexual Stages”
In the highly repressive “Victorian” society in which Freud lived and worked women, in particular, were forced to repress their sexual needs. In many cases the result was some form of neurotic illness.Freud sought to understand the nature and variety of these illnesses by retracing the sexual history of his patients. This was not primarily an investigation of sexual experiences as such. Far more important were the patient's wishes and desires, their experience of love, hate, shame, guilt and fear - and how they handled these powerful emotions.It was this that led to the most controversial part of Freud's work - his theory of psychosexual development and of the Oedipus complex Freud believed that children are born with a libido - a sexual (pleasure) urge. There are a number of stages of childhood, during which the child seeks pleasure from a different `object'[4].To be psychologically healthy, we must successfully complete each stage. Mental abnormality can occur if a stage is not completed successfully - the person becomes `fixated' in a particular stage. This particular theory shows how adult personality is determined by their childhood experiences.
2.4 “Dream Analysis”
Freud (1900) considered dreams to be the 'royal road to the unconscious' as it is in dreams that the ego's defenses are lowered so that some of the repressed material comes through to awareness, albeit in distorted form.Dreams both perform important functions for the unconscious mind and serve as valuable clues to how the unconscious mind operates[2].On 24 July 1895, Freud had his own dream that was to form the basis of his theory. He had been worried about a patient, Irma, who was not doing as well in treatment as he had hoped. Freud in fact blamed himself for this, and was feeling guilty.
Freud dreamed that he met Irma at a party and examined her. He then saw a chemical formula for a drug that another doctor had given Irma flash before his eyes and realized that her condition was caused by a dirty syringe used by the other doctor. Freud's guilt was thus relieved[3].
Freud interpreted this dream as wish-fulfillment. He had wished that Irma's poor condition was not his fault and the dream had fulfilled this wish by informing him that another doctor was at fault. Based on this dream, Freud (1900) went on to propose that a major function of dreams was the fulfillment of wishes.Freud distinguished between the manifest content of a dream (what the dreamer remembers) and the latent content, the symbolic meaning of the dream (i.e. the underlying wish). The manifest content is often based on the events of the day.The process whereby the underlying wish is translated into the manifest content is called dream-work. The purpose of dream work is to transform the forbidden wish into a non-threatening form, thus reducing anxiety and allowing us to continuing sleeping. Dream work involves the process of displacement, condensation and secondary elaboration.Dream analysis involves the translation of the (inevitably distorted) manifest content into the (truthful) latent meaning[1]. Understanding the various distorting processes would help us to understand the latent meaning of a dream.The process of condensation is the joining of two or more idea/images into one. For example, a dream about a man may be a dream about both one's father and one's lover. A dream about a house might be the condensation of worries about security as well as worries about one's appearance to the rest of the world.Displacement takes place when we transform the person or object we are really concerned about to someone else. For example, one of Freud's patients was extremely resentful of his sister-in-law and used to refer to her as a dog, dreamed of strangling a small white dog. Freud interpreted this as representing his wish to kill his sister-in-law. If the patient would have really dreamed of killing his sister-in-law, he would have felt guilty. The unconscious mind transformed her into a dog to protect him.Secondary elaboration occurs when the unconscious mind strings together wish-fulfilling images in a logical order of events, further obscuring the latent content. According to Freud this is why the manifest content of dreams can be in the form of believable events.In Freud's later work on dreams he explored the possibility of universal symbols in dreams. Some of these were sexual in nature, including poles, guns and swords representing the penis and horse riding and dancing representing sexual intercourse.However, Freud was cautious about symbols and stated that general symbols are personal rather than universal. A person cannot interpret what the manifest content of a dream symbolized without knowing about the person's circumstances.'Dream dictionaries', which are still popular now, were a source of irritation to Freud. In an amusing example of the limitations of universal symbols, one of Freud's patients, after dreaming about holding a wriggling fish, said to him 'that's a Freudian symbol - it must be a penis!'Freud explored further and it turned out that the woman's mother, who was a passionate astrologer and a Pisces, was on the patient's mind because she disapproved of her daughter being in analysis.
3. CRITICAL EVALUTION OF FREUD
It should be evident from the foregoing why psychoanalysis in general, and Freud in particular, have exerted such a strong influence upon the popular imagination in the Western World, and why both the theory and practice of psychoanalysis should remain the object of a great deal of controversy[12]. In fact, the controversy which exists in relation to Freud is more heated and multi-faceted than that relating to virtually any other post-1850 thinker (a possible exception being Darwin), with criticisms ranging from the contention that Freud's theory was generated by logical confusions arising out of his alleged long-standing addiction to cocaine (see Thornton, E.M. Freud and Cocaine: The Freudian Fallacy) to the view that he made an important, but grim, empirical discovery, which he knowingly suppressed in favour of the theory of the unconscious, knowing that the latter would be more socially acceptable (see Masson, J.The Assault on Truth).It should be emphasized here that Freud's genius is not (generally) in doubt, but the precise nature of his achievement is still the source of much debate [8]. The supporters and followers of Freud (and Jung and Adler) are noted for the zeal and enthusiasm with which they espouse the doctrines of the master, to the point where many of the detractors of the movement see it as a kind of secular religion, requiring as it does an initiation process in which the aspiring psychoanalyst must himself first be analyzed. In this way, it is often alleged, the unquestioning acceptance of a set of ideological principles becomes a necessary precondition for acceptance into the movement-as with most religious groupings. In reply, the exponents and supporters of psychoanalysis frequently analyze the motivations of their critics in terms of the very theory which those critics reject. And so the debate goes on.Here we will confine ourselves to: (a) the evaluation of Freud's claim that his theory is a scientific one, (b) the question of the theory's coherence, (c) the dispute concerning what, if anything, Freud really discovered, and (d) the question of the efficacy of psychoanalysis as a treatment for neurotic illnesses[13].
4. THE CLAIM TO SCIENTIFIC STATUS
This is a crucially important issue since Freud saw himself first and foremost as a pioneering scientist, and repeatedly asserted that the significance of psychoanalysis is that it is a new science, incorporating a new scientific method of dealing with the mind and with mental illness[9]. There can, moreover, be no doubt but that this has been the chief attraction of the theory for most of its advocates since then-on the face of it, it has the appearance of being not just a scientific theory but an enormously strong one, with the capacity to accommodate, and explain, every possible form of human behavior. However, it is precisely this latter which, for many commentators, undermines its claim to scientific status. On the question of what makes a theory a genuinely scientific one, Karl Popper's criterion of demarcation, as it is called, has now gained very general acceptance: namely, that every genuine scientific theory must be testable, and there fore falsifiable, at least in principle. In other words, if a theory is incompatible with possible observations, it is scientific; conversely, a theory which is compatible with all possible observations is unscientific (see Popper, K. The Logic of Scientific Discovery). Thus the principle of the conservation of energy (physical, not psychic), which influenced Freud so greatly, is a scientific one because it is falsifiable-the discovery of a physical system in which the total amount of physical energy was not constant would conclusively show it to be false. It is argued that nothing of the kind is possible with respect to Freud's theory-it is not falsifiable[8]. If the question is asked: “What does this theory imply which, if false, would show the whole theory to be false?,” the answer is “Nothing” because the theory is compatible with every possible state of affairs. Hence it is concluded that the theory is not scientific, and while this does not, as some critics claim, rob it of all value, it certainly diminishes its intellectual status as projected by its strongest advocates, including Freud himself.
5. HERRITAGE OG FREUD
5.1 Freud's Followers
Freud attracted many followers, who formed a famous group in 1902 called the "Psychological Wednesday Society". The group met every Wednesday in Freud's waiting room.As the organization grew, Freud established an inner circle of devoted followers, the so-called "Committee" (including Sаndor Ferenczi, and Hanns Sachs (standing) Otto Rank, Karl Abraham, Max Eitingon, and Ernest Jones).At the beginning of 1908 the committee had 22 members and renamed themselves the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society[6].
5.2 Freud's Museum
The Freud Museum, at 20 Maresfield Gardens in Hampstead, was the home of Sigmund Freud and his family when they escaped Austria following the Nazi annexation in 1938. It remained the family home until Anna Freud, the youngest daughter, died in 1982. The centrepiece of the museum is Freud's study, preserved just as it was during his lifetime.It contains Freud's remarkable collection of antiquities: Egyptian; Greek; Roman and Oriental. Almost 2,000 items fill cabinets and are arranged on every surface[3]. There are rows of ancient figures on the desk where Freud wrote until the early hours of the morning. The walls are lined with shelves containing Freud's large library.The house is also filled with memories of his daughter, Anna, who lived there for 44 years and continued to develop her pioneering psychoanalytic work, especially with children. It was her wish that the house become a museum to honour her illustrious father. The Freuds were fortunate to be able to bring all their furniture and household effects to London. These included splendid Biedermeier chests, tables and cupboards, and a fine collection of 18th and 19th century Austrian painted country furniture.Undoubtedly the most famous piece of furniture in all the collection is Freud's psychoanalytic couch, on which all of his patients reclined. The couch is remarkably comfortable and is covered with a richly coloured Iranian rug with chenille cushions piled on top. Other fine Oriental rugs, Heriz and Tabriz, cover the floor and tables.The Museum engages actively with Sigmund and Anna's psychoanalytic legacy in contemporary ideas, art, and culture, while caring for the house and collections.We have a broad range of Research Resources including Freuds personal library and collection, Anna Freuds personal library, an archive containing essential documentation on the life and work of Sigmund and Anna Freud and the history of psychoanalysis, a research library specialising in the history, theory and culture of psychoanalysis, a large library of photographs. Images from the library are also available to order.
psychologist freud psychoanalysis
5.3 Lasting Legacy
Freud's many theories - including those about "psychic energy," the Oedipus complex and the importance of dreams - were no doubt influenced by other scientific discoveries of his day. Charles Darvin's understanding of humankind as a progressive element of the animal kingdom certainly informed Freud's investigation of human behavior. Additionally, the formulation of a new principle by Helmholtz, stating that energy in any given physical system is always constant, informed Freud's scientific inquiries into the human mind. Freud's work has been both rapturously praised and hotly critiqued,but no one has influenced the science of psychology as intensely as Sigmund Freud.After a life of constant inquiry, he committed suicide after requesting a lethal dose of morphine from his doctor while exiled in England in 1939, following a battle with oral cancer[2].
CONCLUSION
To sum up I would like to say that Zigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, was a physiologist, medical doctor, psychologist and influential thinker of the early twentieth century. Working initially in close collaboration with Joseph Breuer, Freud elaborated the theory that the mind is a complex energy-system, the structural investigation of which is the proper province of psychology. He articulated and refined the concepts of the unconscious, infantile sexuality and repression, and he proposed a tripartite account of the mind's structure - all as part of a radically new conceptual and therapeutic frame of reference for the understanding of human psychological development and the treatment of abnormal mental conditions. Not with standing the multiple man if estations of psychoanalysis as it exists today, it can in almost all fundamental respects be traced directly back to Freud's original work.No doubt that Freud's innovative treatment of human actions, dreams, and indeed of cultural artifacts as invariably possessing implicit symbolic significance has proven to be extraordinarily fruitful, and has had massive implications for a wide variety of fields including psychology, anthropology, semiotics, and artistic creativity and appreciation. However, Freud's most important and frequently re-iterated claim, that with psychoanalysis he had invented a successful science of the mind, remains the subject of much critical debate and controversy. Im my opinion Zigmund Freud made great progress in medicine and psychology . He was abnormal man. No wonder they say that really great genious people, have some madness. Mayby if he was nomal, he didn't made such discoveries. Supporters have praised Freud rapturously and critics have called him everything from a con-man to a dirty-minded pansexualist . . . but no one disagrees that he has been one of the most influential scientists of the century. Not only did he influence the professional practice of psychology and psychiatry, but he changed the way people (in Western cultures) view themselves and think about their lives.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (Ed. J. Strachey with Anna Freud), 24 vols. London: 1953-1964.
2. Dilman, I. Freud and the Mind. Blackwell, 1984.
3. Wollheim, R. (ed.) Freud: A Collection of Critical Essays. Anchor, 1974.
4. Wollheim, R. & Hopkins, J. (eds.) Philosophical Essays on Freud. Cambridge University Press, 1982.
5. Freud, S. (1961). The resistances to psycho-analysis. In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XIX (1923-1925): The Ego and the Id and Other Works (pp. 211-224).
6. Burke, Janine The Sphinx at the Table: Sigmund Freud's Art Collection and the Development of Psychoanalysis, New York: Walker and Co. 2006, p. 340.
7. Freud, S. (1894). The neuro-psychoses of defence. SE, 3: p. 41-61.
8. Freud, S. (1896). Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence. SE, 3: 157-185.
9. Freud, S. (1900). The interpretation of dreams. S.E., 4-5.
10. Freud, S. (1915). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
11. Freud, S. (1961). The resistances to psycho-analysis. In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XIX (1923-1925): The Ego and the Id and Other Works (pp. 211-224).
12. Bettlelheim, B. Freud and Man's Soul. Knopf, 1982.
13. Lear, J. Love and Its Place in Nature: A Philosophical Interpretation of Freudian Psychoanalysis. Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1990.
Размещено на Allbest.ru
Подобные документы
Definition of Leadership. Trait theory. How this theory works. Origin and Analysis and basics Pre-conditions for effective use of Trait theory. Inborn leadership characteristics. Process of impact and interaction among the leader and his followers.
реферат [436,9 K], добавлен 24.09.2014Influence psychology of cognitive activity and cognitive development on student’s learning abilities during study. Cognitive development theory in psychology. Analysis of Jean Piaget's theory. Her place among the other concept of personal development.
презентация [1,3 M], добавлен 13.04.2016Проблемы понимания американской культуры участниками учебных программы и программ Work and travel: языковой и психологический барьеры – способы преодоления, культура, индивидуализм, вопросы о работе, отношение к духовности, религии и вероисповедание.
статья [14,8 K], добавлен 26.12.2010Studies by Fischer and his colleagues and Dawson (2006) have investigated development in a wide range of domains, including understanding of social interaction concepts such as "nice" and "mean", skills in mathematics, and understanding "leadership".
реферат [20,2 K], добавлен 22.12.2009This article suggests specific ways in which college teachers can foster relationships with students that promote motivation and satisfaction. Fostering personal relationships with students. Motivating students to work. Handling interpersonal issues.
статья [18,6 K], добавлен 10.05.2014Research of negative influence of computer games with the elements of violence and aggression on psychical development of children and teenagers. Reasons of choice of computer games young people in place of walk and intercourse in the real society.
доклад [15,3 K], добавлен 10.06.2014Unhealthy food, lack of sleep, passive lifestyle, related works. Survey, Passive Lifestyle, Lack Of Sleep, Nutrition. How often pupils have negative feelings. Teachers' complaints. Can we do to reduce these negative displays of pupil’s behavior.
курсовая работа [25,5 K], добавлен 18.05.2015The theme of death in the Gothic novel reality. The Gothic image of the world and its fear of an uncertain and unpredictable universe. The fear as the most eminent theme in Poe’s story "The Tell-Tale Heart". The terrible motives of indistinct phenomena.
лекция [22,4 K], добавлен 01.07.2013Humour is very developed in Britain. It's very dry and ironic. Russian humour may be more visual then verbal and more surreal. Humour may cover other feelings. Sigmund Freud said humour helps us to express things in a round about way. It's a way of releas
реферат [6,0 K], добавлен 13.12.2004Economics it is probably the first art which man acquired. When some cavemen went out to hunt while others remained to defend the fire or when skins were traded for flint axes we had economics. Economics is a comprehensive theory of how society works.
контрольная работа [16,1 K], добавлен 15.01.2010
