No other speaking activities are given afterwards.

Episode 3:

pp. 50-52

Food (porridge); Pieces of furniture; Cutlery items.

- Pre-stage:

· The teacher asks children questions concerning the pictures (aim: to predict the context of the episode; to practise speaking skills (description); explains the meaning of the new words;

- While-stage:

The same tasks (see While-stage in Episode 2);

- Post-stage:

· Students complete exercises (p. 52):

1) they try to unscramble words from the twisted letters and write the words down in their notebooks (aim: to practise the target language);

2) they read the sentences and choose the correct word (aim: to practise the target language; to check content comprehension);

3) they read instructions for cooking porridge provided with the corresponding illustrations and arrange the instructions (pictures) in the correct order; then children voice their results (aim: to develop reading skills (verbal and non-verbal texts) and visual literacy; to practise establishing logical relations between objects).

No other speaking activities are given afterwards.

Conclusions on Primary Students' Textbooks Analysis

The analysis of the story-based courses in “Spotlight 2” (Evans et al., 2013), “Spotlight 3” (Evans et al., 2012) and “Spotlight 4” (Evans et al., 2007) showed that, generally, the stories and the activities implemented in all three textbooks comply with the topics suggested by the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia (Ministerstvo obrazovaniya i nauki Rossijskoj Federacii, 2015). Moreover, the story episodes are organised in the form of the three stages, which is, as we remember, one of the criteria for managing successful work with stories in a foreign language classroom. Besides, the choice of the traditional tales for storytelling with primary students seems reasonable and beneficial since those stories are known to be a rich source of authentic language, as well as being frequently familiar to young learners from their first language (Mourгo, 2009) which can facilitate their speech production in English. Indeed, children are more likely to express their ideas in L2 about what they know very well. Traditional tales also form part of the cultural heritage of the countries of their origin; consequently, they are in charge of familiarising children with realia and traditions of foreign cultures.

However, we concluded that the story-based lessons in “Spotlight” are far from being impeccable in terms of developing young learners' speaking skills. Thus, our main inference was that they bristle with language-focused exercises (which is not negative though as vocabulary and grammar serve the basis for the skills) and have very few speaking activities. Hence it appears that the acquisition of vocabulary and grammar is placed over skills development which is not entirely justified. In this way, we need to remember that we learn the language to communicate which is impossible without the skills. The difficulty lies in the fact that lessons comprising mainly the tasks oriented to the practice of the language (vocabulary and grammar) and receptive skills (listening and reading) provide children with input only. To give room for output, children need to be exposed to speaking and writing activities.

In the textbooks, we found writing tasks, but they predominantly consist in coping a piece of text or a few sentences into a notebook which does not require any production and just develops the technique of writing. As for speaking exercises, the review of the programmes indicated several oral games which are part of pair/group/whole class work and do not stimulate extended talks. We noticed a couple of speaking tasks aimed at training the production of monologues but they give a primary focus on description (e.g. `Describe your favourite toy' - it is not even based on the story), not on narration. Once, at the beginning of a story cycle, children are asked to describe the picture from the previous episode, however, no intermediate speaking activities take place so that children may not be prepared to produce their own monologues without any back-up (i.e. a written plan, similar activities completed prior to this one, etc.).

Although all the stages (i.e. pre-, while- and post-) are present in the courses, they partially fulfil their functions. To clarify, the tasks given in the pre-stage of the story cycles mainly alleviate difficulties concerning the new vocabulary and grammar structures and do not always attach significance to the development of pre-listening and pre-reading strategies (e.g. context prediction, activation of schemata). In addition, a student needs to be aware of how to recognise discourse markers and patterns, how to infer emotions or an attitude of the character and so on. As for the while-stage, it is necessary to assign learners a task while they listen to or read the story; whereas asking children to listen to the recording and follow the text at a time does not seem to be a good strategy for us because it is likely to leave students unfocused. The post-stage sometimes contains activities not at all relevant to the episode or activities which do not justify the time spent on it (e.g. `to draw a sign of your house'- what is the aim of this task?) which could be replaced with more productive, speaking exercises.

Over and above everything mentioned, it became apparent that the story-based programmes in the analysed textbooks are rather teacher-centred. They would increase their effectiveness if they were better organised and if appropriate speaking activities were integrated into the syllabuses. So far, these storytelling activities fail to develop primary students' spoken (monologic) discourse competence.

Due to the gaps identified above, we feel the need for designing and demonstrating the procedure for the development of children's speaking skills (monologues) via storytelling.

2.2 The Procedure for Developing Primary Students' Spoken Discourse Competence via Storytelling

Russian methodologists (Rogova & Vereshchagina, 1988; Bim, 2007) have traditionally distinguished between storytelling based on a written/told story (i.e. verbal discourse) and storytelling based on a picture/a series of pictures (i.e. non-verbal discourse). In accordance with this classification and with the focus on spoken discourse competence development, we can propose the following variations of the storytelling procedure:

1. Storytelling based on a written/told story which includes:

1) Pre-listening/reading stage:

– Lead-in to the topic, articulation of the communicative aim, activation of children's schemata on the topic of the story;

– Alleviation of lexical, grammatical and phonetic difficulties, which may arise when listening to or reading the story, through controlled practice;

– The teacher sets a listening/reading task, gives guidelines to children on how to do the next task(s);

2) While-listening/reading stage:

– Students listen to or read the story and, meanwhile, complete exercises intended to underline key ideas and check learners' comprehension (T/F statements, Yes/No questions, multiple-choice questions, “morale” questions);

3) Post-listening/reading stage:

· Language development phase:

– Analysis of the structure of the narrative in terms of cohesion (the use of references, conjunctions, etc.), deixis (the use of personal pronouns, special, temporal and textual references), coherence (theme-rheme organisation of the story, temporal, cause-and-effect, spatial sequencing, etc.), generic features (length, style, the use of voice);

· Speaking phase:

– Discussion after listening to/reading the story in the mode: teacher - students (T-SS) or a student - students (S-SS) (the teacher always monitors and checks);

– Students express their ideas at the level of a sentence or several sentences (e.g. tasks: `Prove that…', `Explain why…');

– Making a plan of the story: a) eliciting key sentences and words; b) formulating points of the plan;

– Students retell the story (i.e. an extended prepared monologue) based on the plan (key sentences and words) of the original story;

– Students create their own story (i.e. an extended prepared monologue) based on the original version but with a tweaked beginning or ending.

2. Storytelling based on a picture or a series of pictures which includes:

1) Pre-listening stage:

– Lead-in to the topic, articulation of the communicative aim, activation of children's schemata on the topic of the non-verbal story;

– Alleviation of difficulties (words, word-phrases, sentences), which may arise at the next stage, through controlled practice in the mode: model pronunciation - whole class - group - individual mode;

– The teacher sets a listening task, gives guidelines on how to do the next task(s);

2) While-listening stage:

– The teacher tells the story based on a picture or a series of pictures; as they listen, students put the pictures together in the right order;

– The teacher checks students' comprehension (general questions, T/F statements, specific questions concerning the picture(s) and aimed to help learners personalise the topic with respect to their individual experience);

3) Post-listening stage:

– Discussion of the picture(s) at the level of a sentence or several sentences;

– Children retell the story (i.e. an extended prepared monologue) based on the model story told by the teacher;

– The teacher sets a new communicative situation, i.e. either gives a different task (e.g. a modified situation, or a tweaked beginning or ending, or introduction of a new character) based on the same picture(s), or presents new pictures and allows children to put them together, to predict the context and to interpret the story as they see it, while the teacher always monitors their speaking.

Foreign methodologists have a different perspective of the storytelling procedure based on a non-verbal text, i.e. on a picture or a series of pictures. Thus, their model is built upon the Task-based learning (TBL) framework (also known as Task-based language teaching (TBLT) framework), introduced by J. Willis (1996). This model places children in the centre of the learning process allowing them to work out rules on the own (guided discovery) by doing meaningful activities with the use of authentic language, while the teacher monitors students' work and guides them. As regards the development of speaking skills, the foreign procedure can be presented in the following way:

1) Pre-task:

– Lead-in to the topic, articulation of the communicative aim, activation of children's schemata on the topic;

– The teacher draws attention to useful language (words, phrases);

– The teacher sets a task, gives guidelines on how to do it and makes sure young learners have understood the instructions;

2) Task cycle:

· Task:

– In pairs or small groups students try to put pictures together so that they have a story; the teacher monitors the work of each group/pair;

· Planning:

– Children prepare to tell the story which they have discovered in groups/pairs; the teacher monitors the work of each group/pair;

· Report:

– Some groups/pairs present their stories to the class, and they compare results; while children are speaking, the teacher monitors their speaking with a particular interest on the use of narrative tenses and may then voice their version of the story;

3) Language focus:

· Analysis:

– Students are given a model answer (story) which they may read themselves or listen to the teacher telling/reading it; on the basis of this model they examine and revise Past Simple and Past Continuous;

· Focus:

– During the analysis or after it, the teacher exposes children to the practice of the narrative tenses, genre features, new words, phrases, structures occurring in the model by encouraging students to make another story.

Scholars Ellis and Brewster (2014) introduced a detailed storytelling procedure which is reminiscent of those supported by Russian methodologists (Rogova & Vereshchagina, 1988; Bim, 2007). Considering and adopting their “Plan-Do-Review” framework, we can propose the following three-stage procedure for developing spoken discourse competence:

1) Stage “Plan”:

This initial stage comprises pre-storytelling controlled-practice activities intended to provide the ground for the upcoming story, to create an information gap, to motivate learners to read/listen to the story and to alleviate the difficulties which may be encountered by children at the next stage. This stage includes:

– Lead-in to the topic of the story by asking students to look at the storybook cover or pictures and tell what they see, or by simply articulating the topic (e.g. `Today you're going to listen to/read an interesting story…');

– Activation of children's schemata and personalisation of the topic regarding learners' prior experience (e.g. asking students questions concerning the topic such as `Have you seen …?', `Where was it?', `What was it like?');

– Context prediction (e.g. “`What do we already know about…?'”, “`What do we want to find out about…?'” (Ellis & Brewster, 2014, p. 35); students discuss their ideas and may note them down in mind maps;

– Discussion of the features of the narrative genre (length, components, and so on) and its structure;

– The practice of key language through mime, simple reading activities, illustrations, songs, memory games, action rhymes;

– Students do listening/reading activities: T/F questions, to listen/read and classify/colour/draw/sequence/match/label, etc.

– The teacher sets a listening/reading task, gives guidelines on how to do it and makes sure young learners have understood the instructions (the teacher can even demonstrate the activity).

2) Stage “Do”:

– The teacher tells the story to students, or students read the story themselves;

– As they listen or read, children do a sequencing task (they put pictures in the right order) or they are given a selection of speech bubbles from which they need to choose the correct speech bubbles and match them to pictures;

– Learners complete tasks on content comprehension (general questions, T/F statements, specific questions concerning the picture(s), etc.);

– Children carry out activities aimed at noticing and practising (experimenting with) the target language; the teacher monitors their work and assists as necessary.

3) Stage “Review”:

– Discussion of the picture(s) initiated by the teacher's questions such as “`Who was your favourite character?' `Why?'” (Ellis & Brewster, 2014, p. 27);

– Students retell the story (i.e. an extended prepared monologue) based on the model story told by the teacher/read by the students and, meanwhile, consolidate the target language from the story; then, children are asked to create their own story based on the original version but with a tweaked beginning or ending.

The review of the models of storytelling showed that there is no single way of using stories with children for developing their speaking discourse skills, and the choice of a certain model and tasks depends on communicative aims, the needs of young learners, their age, and level of English.

To illustrate the procedure for developing children's spoken discourse competence, we chose a fable called “The boy who cried wolf”. Since today's foreign language education attempts to shift away from the teacher-centred learning, it is well worth applying the procedure based on the TBLT framework. The story-based activities we have designed are aimed at primary students with the Beginner-Elementary level of English and can be manifested in the classroom for the purpose of fostering children's speaking skills (the main aim) and practising their communicative, listening, reading and linguistic skills (subsidiary aims). The procedure is presented in the three stages:

STAGE	PROCEDURE	AIMS	TEACHER'S ROLE
1. Pre-task	· Lead-in: The teacher (T) asks the students (SS) if they know what a moral is. The SS express their ideas (they guess if they do not know) in pairs; meanwhile the T mingles and monitors their discussions. Then, the T comments that a story which has a moral teaches readers/listeners an important lesson; and such stories are called fables. The SS are asked to discuss with their partner (a different one) (at the level of the sentence or two) which fable(s) they read or know from the Russian and/or foreign literature and what moral a reader can draw of that fable. The T monitors. Some pairs later present their ideas to the class. · The T draws children's attention to the pictures (see Appendix) and introduces the target language: a shepherd, sheep, a mountain, to shout, to cry, a wolf, a villager, to laugh, to run away; they practise pronouncing the words (whole class, individually). The SS should use this language when telling the story. · The T tells the SS that they are going to read a fable called “The boy who cried the wolf” about a shepherd; and the SS try to guess from the title what the story might be about (mode of work - plenary); · The T gives guidelines to the SS on how to complete the next tasks: You have a set of interconnected pictures in front of you. Your task is to arrange them so that a story is made. Then, you will be given time to prepare to narrate the story. A couple of people will share their interpretations with the class.	· To activate SS' schemata on the topic; to establish cross-curricular links with literature; to spark SS' interest in the story. · To predict the context of the story, to elicit the target language; to practise pronunciation.	Involver Monitor Expert
2. Task cycle	1) Task: In pairs, the SS discuss the possible logical sequencing of events and try to put the pictures (see Appendix) together so that they have a story; the T monitors the work of each pair. 2) Planning: The SS prepare to verbalise the story: they make a plan of the narration (i.e. formulating points of the plan, writing down key words and sentences, planning which discourse markers and tenses to use); the T circulates and monitors the work of each pair; 3) Report: · In pairs, based on the plan, the SS try to tell each other the stories they have decoded from the pictures; · Afterwards, some SS present their stories to the class. The T rigorously monitors the SS' speaking on the use of narrative tenses. As the SS listen to the stories of others, they compare the results and choose the best story according to the criteria (there can be several nominations: the best language, the best blot, the best presentation).	To develop SS' autonomy; to develop reading (non-verbal texts), listening and speaking skills (to produce an extended monologue based on the pictures).	Monitor
3. Language Focus	1) Analysis: · The SS listen to a model answer (story) (adapted from “Storytelling with children” by Wright, 2009, pp. 194-195): Once upon a time there was a shepherd boy who was taking care of his sheep on the mountain. He felt so bored that he shouted, `Help! Wolf!' Some villagers heard his cries and run up the mountain to help him. The boy laughed. “`Where's the wolf? Where's the wolf?' the people asked. `It ran away!' the boy said.” (Wright, 2009, pp. 194-195). Next day the shepherd boy felt bored again so he shouted, `Help! Wolf!' Again, some villagers heard his cries and run up the mountain to help him. The boy laughed. “`Where's the wolf? Where's the wolf?' the people asked. `It ran away!' the boy said.” (Wright, 2009, pp. 194-195). “On the third day a wolf came so the boy cried, `Help! Wolf!' The people in the town heard him but they said, `It's not true. He's bored. He wants to see us run up the mountain.'” (Wright, 2009, pp. 194-195). So the villagers did not believe the shepherd boy and did not come to help him. In the end, the wolf ate all of the boy's sheep. · When listening to the model answer, the SS are asked to pay special attention to cohesion and to fill in the gaps with the discourse markers (see underlined words in the text) they will hear in the text (before listening they are given the printed version of the story with missing cohesive devices); · The SS briefly discuss what the moral of the story is; · The SS read the model again and on its basis they examine and revise Past Simple and Past Continuous (guided discovery); 2) Focus: After the analysis, the SS retell the model story minding the correct use of narrative tenses, generic and structural features; or they make another story as a sequel to the story (e.g. they can imagine what happened to the boy next: he realised he had misbehaved, he apologised for his actions, etc.).	To revise and practise using correct narrative tenses, generic and structural features; to practise listening and reading; to develop speaking skills (narration).	Expert Monitor Expert

A few important comments should be made regarding the illustrated procedure. Each following activity in this story cycle is built upon the preceding ones. This gradation of tasks enables children to eventually acquire expertise in producing extended narrative talks. In the meantime, they improve their listening, reading, communicative (all exercises involve active collaboration with classmates) and linguistic skills, develop visual literacy, learn to predict the context of the story and to draw logical conclusions based on their prior knowledge, experience, illustrations and so on. What is more, children grow as autonomous learners by doing guided-discovery activities, such as arranging the pictures and creating a story based on that order, reading the model story and working out the rules of using Past Simple and Past Continuous tenses.

Conclusions on Chapter 2

The work carried out in Chapter 2 has made a substantial contribution to the wholeness of the research as it allowed us to study the concepts of spoken discourse competence and storytelling from a practical standpoint, thereby completing the information on the topic.

In summary, we did a thorough analysis of a popular series of primary students' textbooks “Spotlight” (Evans et al., 2013, 2012, and 2007) in order to examine their story-based courses on the presence of speaking tasks. As a result, we inferred that those programmes are rich in language-focused activities and short of skills-oriented tasks which would promote the development of young learners' spoken discourse competence.

To fill in this gap, we designed several types of the storytelling procedure particularly useful for improving speaking skills. To yield deeper insight into the procedure application, we created a cycle of activities based on a fable “The boy who cried wolf”.



Conclusion

In this thesis, we aimed to demonstrate how storybooks can facilitate the development of primary students' spoken discourse competence. To achieve this goal, we needed to accomplish a set of objectives. Like in the storytelling procedure, each preceding stage in this research played a crucial role in providing a substantial ground for the succeeding stages.

Thus, in the course of the study, we defined the concept of discourse and identified its types, attaching special importance to the investigation of the spoken discourse type. Next, we went on to scrutinise various models of communicative competence seeking to distil the essence of discourse competence and to define its role as a component of communicative competence. Then, we drew particular attention to the nature of children of primary school age and to the specifics of their discourse competence development. During the following stage, we studied the benefits of storytelling and defined its role as a tool of spoken discourse competence development.

As part of the empirical research, we analysed a series of textbooks “Spotlight” by Evans et al. (2013, 2012, 2007) used in primary schools in order to determine whether they provide effective storytelling activities to foster young learners' speaking skills. The results showed that the story-based programmes in the analysed textbooks lack speaking activities, thus are of little value to children in terms of the development of monologic discourse, hence the need for the design of the proper procedure. Consequently, we proposed several variations of the story-based procedure and, on the basis of the fable “The boy who cried Wolf”, we demonstrated a possible way of applying one of the types of the procedure, thereby achieving our main aim.

Thus, by conducting this research, we have made several crucial inferences which could be articulated in the following way:

1) The development of elementary discourse competence has to be included in all foreign language primary school educational programmes since it is integral (along with other components) to the enhancement of communicative competence, which is the pivotal goal of foreign language learning today.

2) The acquisition of spoken language happens at a faster pace than that of written language, however, it is expected that by the end of primary school students become equally competent in both spoken and written discourse.

3) Entering primary school, children just begin to learn to learn, thus it is meaningful and useful to employ only productive and (if possible) natural techniques to boost their confidence in using L2 and to ensure their active participation and constant motivation, hence the need for using storytelling.

4) Storytelling is indeed a powerful tool since it promotes a whole-school, holistic approach to learning: it stimulates cognitive, socio-emotional and aesthetic development, broadens primary students' horizons and establishes cross-curricular links (i.e. the transference of knowledge from different subjects to L2). Interestingly, these processes take place indirectly, `in the background', no matter which aims are set to be achieved. For instance, according to our storytelling procedure based on the fable “The boy who cried Wolf”, young learners master their speaking skills (the primary aim), whereas, as the subsidiary aims, their listening and reading skills show improvement as well; moreover, students gain some literature knowledge (i.e. a cross-curricular link between literature and English) and get acquainted with traditions of other cultures (i.e. sociocultural, cognitive development).

5) Storytelling allows the development of all discourse skills during one cycle (one of them will be the main aim, the rest - the subsidiary aims).

6) Storytelling offers enormous potential for the enhancement of spoken discourse competence as stories expose children to authentic, often repetitive (thus can be easily memorised) language which they can emulate and make use of in real-life communication. When acquiring this competence, they learn to recognise and build temporal/chronological relations between objects; this takes place in the process of the comprehension and production of narratives.

7) The technique of storytelling involves learners in active collaboration with one another, thereby enabling them to practise communicative skills and to produce output.

8) Storytelling allows the implementation of a learner-centred approach and the development of children's autonomy.

9) In order to benefit students and to make all the aforementioned processes possible, stories have to be carefully selected and story-based courses have to be thoroughly planned, which implies proper phasing (staging), the gradation of tasks, the adaptation of tasks to children's levels and needs. Furthermore, activities need to meet the thematic requirements (Ministerstvo obrazovaniya i nauki Rossijskoj Federacii, 2015) and the criteria set by Thornbury (2005).

To conclude, hopefully, the results of this research, both theoretical and practical, will assist primary school teachers in their foreign language teaching practice and will raise awareness of the benefits of using stories for the development of young learners' spoken discourse competence.



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Appendix

Figure 1 The Boy Who Cried Wolf (n.d.). Retrieved from taleswithgigi.com/tale/19/

Figure 2 The Boy Who Cried Wolf (n.d.). Retrieved from taleswithgigi.com/tale/19/



Figure 3 The Boy Who Cried Wolf (n.d.). Retrieved from taleswithgigi.com/tale/19/

Figure 4 The Boy Who Cried Wolf (n.d.). Retrieved from taleswithgigi.com/tale/19/



Figure 5 The Boy Who Cried Wolf (n.d.). Retrieved from taleswithgigi.com/tale/19/

Figure 6 The Boy Who Cried Wolf (n.d.). Retrieved from taleswithgigi.com/tale/19/

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