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Vitebsk State Order of People's Friendship Medical University

THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE

Prepared by the student

of the medical faculty(group 35)

Golubtsov Viachaslav

Vitebsk 2012

Introduction

Medicine appeared from a dream. Every human wanted to prolong his life and to be healthy to struggle with difficulties in uncivilized world. Dreams should come true. So medicine began. The history of medicine is very fascinating. There are so many personalities that led the mankind to this dream, that it's very hard to mention all them. Medicine had been revolutionized, transformed, but it has some main ideas that have been constant from the very beginning. Human body hasn't changed very much. But it's very difficult to study it even when some things don't change. Human body is like a universe. A universe in each of us…

Symbols of medicine

The most famous symbols of medicine are the `star of life' with six ends, the Asclepiy's stick with a spiral snake and a red cross (from the 20^th century).

Medicine in Ancient Civilization

Early man, like the animals, was subject to illness and death. Life was uncomfortable, dangerous and hard. If the man had a wound, his instinctive action was to suck or lick this wound. He knew that bleeding very often eased the pain of a wound.

Instinctive medical actions soon became ceremonial rituals which became very important in the life of a primitive man. Medicine progressed slowly. The medicine-man practiced magic to help the man who was ill or had a wound.

As the centuries passed, man came to know anatomy from the animals he killed. The medicine-man became the central figure of the tribe.

Between 7000 and 4000 B.C. new civilization developed from the early tribes. Ancient Egyptians were the earliest civilized people in the world. They studied the human body. Magic still played an important role when the medicine-man treated ill people but Egyptians also developed practical methods of treatment. Homer wrote that Egyptian doctors were the best in his time.

The early Indians in Mexico used narcotics in the treatment of diseases. In Peru and India surgery was very developed. Amputations were very common in these countries.

Medicine in China began about 2600 B.C. The Chinese used acupuncture very often. The Chinese also discovered about two thousand medicinal substances.

Scientific Progress in Health in Greece

During the period of 5000 B.C. the medical knowledge from Egypt spread to Greece where it was further developed. The Greeks knew how to stop bleeding. Such great philosophers as Hippocrates, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were all connected with the development of science and medicine in Greece. The Greeks could diagnose illness. The Greeks also credited many gods and goddesses as they could cure diseases and bring health. Apollo was the god of disease and healing. At a later date his mythical son Asclepius with his daughter Hygeia replaced Apollo. Hygeia was the Greek goddess of health. The cup of Asclepius, entwined with a serpent, still the symbol of medicine. The cult of Asclepius was the most famous religious-medical cult in history.

Hippocrates - "the Father of Medicine"

medicine human body hippocrates

Hippocrates symbolised the greatness of the creative and classical period of history. He is called "the father of scientific medicine " Hippocrates was the first who spoke about the natural causes of diseases. He also established fundamental principles of observation and treatment that are used to this day.

Hippocrates was born in 460 B.C. on the island of Cos. He was the son of a doctor. Hippocrates studied medicine and then he went from town to town where he practiced the art of medicine. It is known that he drove out the plague from Athens by lighting fires in the streets of the city.

Hippocrates was.known as an excellent doctor and a teacher of medicine. He established medical schools in Athens and in other towns. He wrote several books and many case histories. Hippocrates taught his pupils to Examine the patient very attentively and to give him quick help. He created medicine on the basis of experience. He taught that every disease was a natural process and it had natural causes. Hippocrates treated diseases by exercise, massage, salt water baths, diet and suitable medicine. He observed diseases such as pneumonia, tuberculosis and malaria, and he added to the medical language such words as chronic, crisis, relapse and convalescence.

One of the Hyppocrates theories was that the body consists of 4 fluids: blood, Phlegm, Yellow bile and black bile. He thought that two much of one of these fluids caused desease and the doctor had to restore the balance. And only two thousand years later this theory was proved incorrect. Hippocrates made medicine an art, a science and a profession.

Hippocrates is the most famous of all the Greek doctors. He is often called "the Father of Medicine" and some of his ideas are still important. Doctors in many countries take the Hippocratic oath. It is a collection of promises written by Hippocrates, which forms the basis of the medical code of honour. The Oath of Hippocrates contains many of his thoughts and basic principles.

The Hippocratic Oath

I swear by Apollo the physician, by Aesculapius, Hygeia and Panaceas, and I take to witness of all the gods, and the goddesses, to keep according to my ability the following Oath.

I will prescribe regimen for the good of my patients according to my ability and never do harm to anyone, I will not prescribe a deadly drug, nor give advice which may cause him death.

In every house where I come I will enter, only,for the good of my patients, I will keep myself far from all intentional ill-doing, and especially from.the pleasures of love with women or with men, be they free or slave's: All that may come to my knowledge in the exercise of my profession or outside of my profession, which must not be spread abroad, I will keep secret 1 will never reveal.

If I keep this oath faithfully, may I enjoy my life and practice my art, respected by all men and in all times, but if I swerve from it or violate it, may the reverse be my lot.

The oath of asclepiads

In the fifth century B.C. in Greece, on the island of Plaits there was a dense grove. It surrounded a temple - a low white building with columns. The temple has been devoted to the god Asklepiy and and it was famous around the whole Ellade.

All European medical science was born here, on a rocky isle of Aegean Sea. Here there was a asclepiads' brotherhood, it was something like school of the doctors considering theirselves descendants of god Asklepiy (according to some sources - the Doctor).

Each doctor accepted an oath finishing training on the island of Plaits. He repeated after the teacher with his hand rose in front of the flaring fixture: - I Swear Apollo-healer, Asklepiy and Hygeia...

Hygeia was considered as Asklepiy's daughter. In Greek mythology she watched cleanliness. She posessed remarkable idea - to wash hands before meal. The word 'hygiene' came from the name of this goddess.

According to the legend, the oath has been written down from the Hippocrates' words by pen from the pointed stem.

- I swear, - the young doctor spoke, - what house I enter, I will enter there for the patients' favor. I will be far from all fatal, I will not hand over anybody poisonous means... Also what I will see in lives of people from something that is not necessary to disclose, I will hold back that and consider such things a secret. The oath of asclepiads' has lived up to nowadays. It's pronounced in some modern way by students who graduate from Medical Universities.

The Middle Ages

Man tried to protect health during the Middle Ages. Certain important health methods were used during this period. Epidemics of diphtheria, typhoid, fever, leprosy, influenza, bubonic plague and other diseases took millions of lives.

Leprosy was spread for hundreds of years. This disease was controlled not by medical means. Poor lepers lived in special colonies, away from other people. This was a very important advance in public health during this period.

During the Middle Ages plague killed many millions of people in Europe. In 1348 the Black Death struck Britain: nobody knew how to fight with the disease. The doctors advised people to run away from the affected areas. Everybody agreed that plague was god's punishment for the sins of man.

Developments of the Middle Ages

A very important development during the Middle Ages was the hospital. Hospitals appeared in Ceylon early in the fifth century B.C. and in India in 260 B.C. Hospitals were founded during the Middle Ages in Italy, France, England, Spain and other European countries.

The number of hospital beds was not always an indication of hospital size, as usually great beds were used, and four or six patients were put on one bed.

'Hospitals were founded to treat the sick people. Another development during the Middle Ages was the foundation of Universities. Many of the great European Universities were founded during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Biological sciences were taught in the universities. Students also studied the human body and some diseases.

Artists Study the Human Body

Even in Roman times, people were afraid of dead bodies. Dissection, that is the cutting open of bodies to learn more about the various parts and how they work, was banned by religion and the law. This delayed the study of anatomy for over a thousand years.

It is strange that the first effort to study the human body was made by Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo, Raphael and Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo wished to draw the body with more realism. So he carefully examined the shape of bones and muscles. He also dissected over thirty dead bodies and drew pictures of many internal organs, the veins and arteries.

Studying the Human Body

In the sixteenth century a doctor named Andreas Vesalius studied anatomy on dead bodies. He used corpses for his examinations. Vesalius was born in Brussels, got his education as a doctor in Paris. Later he moved to Padua University where he became Professor of anatomy. In 1543 he published an illustrated book - "The Working of the Human Body".

During the era of the fourteenth through seventeenth century the foundations of science and medicine were established. The art of surgery was improved by Ambroise Pare. Paracelsus became the father of twentieth-century chemotherapy. Andreas Vesalius made the study of anatomy a science based on direct observations. William Harvey, the English physician to King James I, discovered the circulation of the blood and his countryman Thomas Sydenham developed the science of internal medicine.

In 1675 Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch brewer invented the microscope and observed bacteria and protozoa. He also described microscopic organisms. Other important discoveries were made in the seventeenth century. These discoveries helped to understand and study the human body, especially the various digestive glands, blood circulation, sensory nerve endings, the structure and function of the ear, salivary glands and the structure of bones.

The Rebirth of Science

The eighteenth century was a period during which steady progress was made in the health-related sciences. New discoveries were made in. physics, chemistry, anatomy, biology, physiology, bacteriology and other sciences.

The beginning of new theories of disease was stimulated by the first great pathologist Giovanni Battista Morgagni who explained the connection of the symptoms of disease in the living body with anatomical findings at autopsy. The English naval surgeon James Lind discovered the ways to treat scurvy. The great anatomist John Hunter became known as the founder of scientific surgery. The French physician Rene Laennec, with his invention of the stethoscope, extended the development of physical diagnosis, begun by Leopold Auen- brugger.

At the end of the century immunology was introduced in the field of health conservation.

In 1776 the vaccination for smallpox was discovered in England by Edward Jeriner. With slight modification the same method is still used to provide smallpox immunity today.

In 1799 Sir Humphry Davy discovered that nitrous oxide, or "laughing gas", helped to relieve pain when breathed into the lungs and could make people temporarily unconscious. Forty years later Michael Faraday found that ether had the same effect, and in 1846 a famous American surgeon of the time, John Warren, carried out a successive operation on a patient's throat using ether as an anaesthetic. In the following year it was found that chloroform could relieve pain during childbirth.

Rapid Scientific Advances

Great discoveries were made in the nineteenth century. One of them was the discovery of cocaine, which was very effective as a local anaesthetic. Surgeons could inject cocaine into a certain part of the body and deaden the pain in that part during the operation.

When the problem of pain was solved, surgeons could carry out long and complicated operations.

A very_ important discovery was made by the French chemist, physicist and bacteriologist Louis Pasteur. We know him as the originator of the "germ theory" of disease. He discovered fermentation and developed the process of pasteurization. Louis Pasteur produced the theory that disease and infection were caused by germs and he proved that they were spread through the air. He found that germs could be killed in the liquids by heat and the term "pasteurization" was given to this process. Milk is treated in this way today to make it safe to drink.

Rudolf Virchov became known for his work in cellular pathology, and Herman von Helmholtz for his invention of the ophthalmoscope in 1850. Lord Joseph Lister introduced antiseptic surgery in 1867, and Wilhelm K. Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895. He placed his hand in front of the apparatus and saw that the rays passed through the hand and castt a shadow of bones on the screen. Because he did not know what the rays were he called them X-rays.

The Developments of the Twentieth Century

1. During the first seventy years of the twentieth century many discoveries were made in the treatment and prevention of disease. In 1901 Karl Landsteiner discovered the blood groups.

2. Some diseases are not caused by germs or infections but by the lack of certain substances in our food. The discovery of vitamins in 1912 was very important to provide) people with a properly balanced diet.

3. In 1922 Sir Frederick Banting found that insulin is very effective against diabetes mellitus.

4. Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Df. Alexander Fleming who became "The founder of the modern science of antibiosis. Penicillin was used in hospitals to reduce infections in wounds during the Second World War. Streptomycin and a series of anti-infection drugs were discovered |after penicillin. All these drugs are known as antibiotics.

5. A drug known as sulphanilamide was discovered in 1935. It became the first of the "miracle" drugs which gave immediate and amazing results in-the treatment of many infectious diseases including pneumonia.

6. During the two world wars, great advances were made in the field of plastic surgery, in which skin, bone, or muscle was taken from one part of the body and then was transplanted to a badly injured area in another part.

7. Great progress was made in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases, cancer, bacterial and viral infections; kidney disorders and other main causes of death and disability.

8. The individual of today will live longer and more healthfully than ever before.

The breathtaking 21 century

1. Human Genome Discoveries Reach the Bedside

In 2000, scientists in with the International Human Genome Project released a rough draft of the human genome to the public. For the first time the world could read the complete set of human genetic information and begin to discover what our roughly 23,000 genes do.

Mapping the human genome had become a race of time and money in the 1990s, with two competitors at the forefront: the government-funded Human Genome Project, which completed its task in 15 years with more than $3 billion in taxpayer money, and a private company, Celera Genomics, which was financed with $100 million and took less than a decade.

Both groups announced a rough draft at joint press conference on June 26, 2000.

In 2003 a "final" draft was released by researchers, and in 2007 more updates to the genome were published by Craig Venter, PhD, chief scientist behind Celera Genomics.

"It's the precursor for lots of medical advances," said Venter, now chairman and president of the nonprofit J. Craig Venter Institute.

"That was absolutely the hope for it, that it will begin to change things," said Venter, who was awarded the National Medal of Science by President Obama last month for his work on the human genome.

At the moment Venter sees more medical potential than medical achievements in genomic research. But when those advances do come, Venter predicts it will help preventative medicine and cut our rapidly accelerating medical costs from increasingly expensive treatments.

"I think the biggest area of the future will be preventive medicine," said Venter. "By understanding the genetic causes and links to disease we can spend more and more attention on preventing disease."

For example, Venter said doctors have developed a genetic test for a gene associated with prostate cancer, "and there's a drug available that greatly lowers the risk for prostate cancer in the future."

2. Doctors and Patients Harness Information Technology

Patients may not even think of it as they sign in with a pad and pen, then sit in the waiting room while the nurse pulls their file. But doctors say the Internet and information technology has actually changed the way they practice medicine for the better. Even doctors need to look things up from time to time.

3. Anti-Smoking laws and Campaigns Reduce Public Smoking

There is no national smoking ban in the U.S., but 27 states and the District of Columbia have enacted smoking bans, including seven states that ban smoking in bars and casinos in recent years.

In a report issued last October, the Institute of Medicine said those public smoking bans have cut exposure to secondhand smoke, which, in turn, has contributed to a reduction in heart attacks and death from heart disease. Experts in the history of medicine agreed.

"Anti-smoking campaigns (at least in the U.S.), including banning of smoking in workplaces and public places, [have] enormous impact across socioeconomic classes on many diseases," said Humphreys, who added that smoking increases the risk for strokes and many cancers.

While public smoking bans protect people from secondhand smoke, doctors say they also motivate people to quit.

4. Heart Disease Deaths Drop by 40 Percent

Those looking for dramatic improvements in public health need look no further than the world of heart disease.

A mere 25 years ago, when a patient came to a hospital with a heart attack, the best that could be done was to put the patient in a darkened room, give him or her morphine for pain and lidocaine, which doctors believed would prevent dangerous irregular heartbeats, and hope for the best.

Heart attacks, called infarcts, were "big" and the damage to the heart muscle was often catastrophic, leading eventually to heart failure and death.

By contrast, today treating a heart attack is all about speed: speed the patient to the hospital so that a clot that blocks the life-saving flow of blood can be "busted" with drugs like the genetically engineered tissue plasminogen activator or tPA.

Or, if the problem is a vessel narrowed by buildup of plaque, a tiny flexible tube called a stent can be guided from an artery in the groin or the forearm up into the heart, where it is used to prop open the vessel to allow blood to flow normally.

Still other patients are sent to surgery, where surgeons have learned sophisticated techniques to sew new vessels into the heart to bypass diseased arteries.

Moreover, drugs that didn't exist 25 years ago -- chiefly statins like simvastatin, Lipitor, mevacor, and Crestor -- are now routinely used to slow the progression of atherosclerosis, the medical term that describes the build-up of the hard, waxy substance called plaque that narrows arteries.

Cardiologists say these efforts really began to bear fruit after 2000.

"In 1998/2000 the American Heart Association set a decade-long goal to reduce coronary heart disease and stroke and risk by 25% by 2010. We actually realized this goal by 2008 and have seen continued improvements in the reduction of deaths due to coronary heart disease and stroke," said Clyde Yancy, MD, of Baylor University Medical Center in Dallas, Texas. "As of today, we have seen a near 40 percent reduction in death due to coronary artery disease since 1998/2000.

Yancy said research shows about half of the gains in heart disease came from new treatment interventions, the other half (up to 60 percent) are due to prevention.

"Importantly, what this means is that the community 'gets it.' Better control of blood pressure, preemptive lowering of blood cholesterol levels, better diets, and reduced smoking are resulting in fewer (cardiac) events," he said.

5. Stem Cell Research: Laboratory Breakthroughs and Some Clinical Advances

Probably no area of research has so fired the public imagination and so ignited the fires of public controversy as that of stem cell research. In reality, this area has generated more political action than reproducible clinical advances - the much-publicized ban on Federal funding of embryonic stem cell research was rescinded this year.

But the clinical advances with embryonic or adult stem cells -- even when they have come from pilot studies -- have been tantalizing.

For example, European researchers genetically manipulated bone marrow cells taken from two 7-year-old boys and then transplanted the altered cells back into the boys and apparently arrested the progress of a fatal brain disease called adrenoleukodystropy or ALD, which was the disease that affected the child in the movie "Lorenzo's Oil."

Cases like those fuel the promise of stem cell research, be it embryonic or adult stem cells. As the population ages, the opportunity for 'replacement parts' becomes more and more inviting, and I'm counting on stem cell research to give me, at least, new cartilage for my knees," joked Humphreys. "This seems likely to be the future of regenerative medicine."

Stem cell researcher George Daley, MD, PhD, of Children's Hospital in Boston, called progress in both adult and embryonic stem cell research this decade "breathtaking."

"Now we can make embryonic-like stem cells directly from skin cells, which makes it possible to model a multitude of human diseases in the petri dish. New drugs based on stem cells are being developed, and the first human clinical trial based on products of human embryonic stem cells is expected in 2010," said Daley. "The science of the past decade has been spectacular, and we're hopeful that in the next decade, we'll start to realize the promise of new stem cell therapies."

6.Targeted Therapies for Cancer Expand With New Drugs.

7. Minimally Invasive and Robotic Techniques Revolutionize Surgery

Ten years ago a patient would typically be left with a 10-inch scar when a doctor removed a kidney, but in late 2007 the surgeons at the Cleveland Clinic began removing kidneys through a single incision in the patient's navel.

And earlier this year, a Cleveland Clinic surgeon removed a diseased kidney from a woman using a technique called natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery or NOTES. In the case of the woman the kidney was removed through her vagina-an approach originally developed for hysterectomy.

Tiny metal hands carefully manipulating sutures deep inside the heart seems like a scenario pulled from "Star Trek," but the reality is that robotic surgery is occurring daily in a growing number of centers across the country.

8. Scientists Peer Into Mind With Functional MRI

Mind-reading has moved from carnival attraction to the halls of medicine with what is known as a functional MRI.

The medical mind-readers are not trying to identify a card randomly selected from a deck -- they are using sophisticated imaging techniques to map the way the mind works.

Conclusion

Many worlds have been opened but there is so much unknown… The world changes around us and new problems which need to be solved with the help of medicine appear. So, we can also become a part of this history.

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