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FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

OF HIGHER EDUCATION

NATIONAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY

HIGHER SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS

Saint Petersburg School of Economics and Management

Department of Management

Bachelor's thesis

Motivational Factors for Female Entrepreneurs

Iakovleva Ekaterina Nikolaevna

Saint Petersburg 2019

Abstract

Currently, a lot of women across different countries consider entrepreneurship a possible career choice and have a desire to start a new business. Although the number of such women is increasing, a significant gap in studying particular factors that motivate women to choose an entrepreneurial career. Nonetheless, the female entrepreneurship rate is remarkably lower than that of men. This paper investigates women's rationale in order to strengthen entrepreneurs' input to national economic growth, social life and worldwide development. It also aims to classify drivers of two types of early-stage entrepreneurial activities: opportunity Total Entrepreneurial Activity (TEA) and necessity TEA. Received classification is compared to elements found to be influential in the case of male total early stage-entrepreneurial activities. Using GEM APS Global Individual Level Data for the year 2015, Total Early-Stage Entrepreneurial activities of various types (opportunity and necessity) were regressed on socio-demographic factors and factors characterizing attitudes, perceptions, and intentions (i.e. preference for similar standard of living in the country, personal knowledge of someone who started a firm in the past two years, etc.). It was found out that female gender is negatively associated with opportunity TEA and positively associated with necessity TEA, which supported previous studies findings. It was also found out that fear of failure negatively affects both male and female perception of entrepreneurship as a good career choice. Besides that, disclosure of such motivating factors as necessary skills possession and entrepreneurship endorsement in society might direct policy-makers and other state bodies, that aim to promote entrepreneurship and create a favorable business ecosystem.

Keywords: GEM, entrepreneurial motivation, opportunity entrepreneurship, necessity entrepreneurship, nascent entrepreneurship, female entrepreneurship, early-stage entrepreneurial activities

Table of contents

Introduction

1. Theoretical foundation

1.1 Entrepreneur

1.2 Entrepreneurship

1.3 Female and male entrepreneurship

1.4 Theory of gender role

1.5 The person role in the society

1.6 Factors to become an entrepreneur

1.7 The supporting atmosphere for entrepreneurship

1.8 Internal and external motivation

1.9 Opportunity and necessity motivation

1.10 “Pull” motivating factors

1.11 “Push” motivating factors

1.12 The implementation for entrepreneurship policy

2. Statement of the research question

3. Methodology

3.1 Early-stage entrepreneurship

3.2 Data collection

3.3 Current trends in entrepreneurship studies

3.4 Methods to measure motivation

3.5 Method and model

4. Description of the results

Conclusion

Reference list

Appendix

Introduction

Modern women are more economically independent and have much extended access to higher education. The unprecedented growth of women labor force is predicted in the nearest decade. Entrepreneurship as a whole is a complex concept but its generating power of creativity, innovation and creation of new working places could not be overrated (García & Capitán, 2016). However, all over the world traditional obligations and expectations concerning women's way of life have not disappeared over time (Kelley, et al., 2017).

Little attention has been paid to the factors influencing women's desire to be self-employed; from time to time the drivers of entrepreneurship ignore gender and country's specificity. Such a drawback negatively affects state policy because frequently governments apply best practices seen abroad. The concept of “best practices” is tricky due to the unequal input of different factors. Hence, it is crucial to take into account the country's characteristics and trace what aspects are more influential and what aspect could be ignored in entrepreneurship policy measures (Acs & Audretsch, 2010, pp. 601-603). Previous studies on female entrepreneurship have primarily examined the personal characteristics of female entrepreneurs missing external factors. Entrepreneurship is an extremely complicated paradox and women's business is not an exception. Thus, the traditional view of the problem should be extended (Walker and Webster, 2007).

Reasons, factors and conditions that influence the decision to become an entrepreneur have always been different. Moreover, the social, political, and economic climate of the country may shape the attitude and motivation of female entrepreneurs. That is driving factors could be tangible (i.e. resources available) or intangible (i.e. social attitude toward entrepreneurship as a career choice). Gender could be attributed to the set of impalpable drivers (García & Capitán, 2016). Basically, women are less likely to be involved in entrepreneurship than men. According to the GEM Annual Report, there are 7 women for every 10 men involved in entrepreneurship. Merely, in a few countries the share of female entrepreneurs is equal to male's or even higher (Global Report 2018, 2018). The lower incidence of female entrepreneurship is recorded plenty of datasets: the World Bank Investment Climate Survey and the World Values Survey (Terrell & Troilo, 2010). The mentioned trends and overall lack of similar research provide the reason to focus on exploring motivational factors affecting women's decision (Bui et al., 2018; Walker and Webster, 2007).

Besides, gender equality and success or motivation of start-ups establish were two parallel domains of previous studies. The former miss entrepreneurship as an index of similar rights and opportunities in the country; the latter (company's assessment rankings) omitted a gender factor. Aidis (2016) believes that the disbalance of gender equal rights and entrepreneurial success got its resonance in the list of countries favorable for entrepreneurship. Countries placing top positions on the list do not overlap with countries where female part of the society feels equal to that of men. As a result, the author comes with the idea that cross-functional analysis of gender constraints and successful business practices is a required improvement to be made in the academic domain. Currently, gender-neutral measures support the male business more than its female equivalent. Frequently women's fear to establish a business lies deep inside and has a psychological tone. Not only do financial assistance and educational support play a crucial role in female business development but also psychological guidance is rewarding in terms of overcoming insecurities. Such insecurities could be even worse when a woman lacks a family member's support. This, in turn, may come from the general situation in the country. A negative attitude towards entrepreneurship and women in business constrains TEA growth.

Due to the fact that there has been little quantitative analysis of entrepreneurial attitudes, perceptions, and intentions, this study is of particular value for policy-makers. What is more, the results of the study may be used as a touchstone for identifying criteria that may inspire and incline to set up an enterprise.

There are various classifications of factors explaining women's expectations and reasons to run their own business. The set of factors may be divided into two groups: external (i.e. access to higher education) and internal (i.e. risk perception). There is another way of factors' categorizing: the motivation by necessity (no other options of workforce involvement are possible) and the motivation by opportunity (women perceive opportunity as the main motivation of establishing their own business) (McGowan et al., 2012). Factors could be evaluated either as “formal” (infrastructure and objectives) and “informal” (socio-demographic attributes) (García & Capitán, 2016). This paper seeks to address both types of female motivation: external attitude and internal perception; it aims to establish the strength of the relationships between separate drivers and early-stage entrepreneurship. The research is precious because it attempts to show how significantly female motivation differs from factors compelling male part to make a similar career choice.

The opportunity of early-stage entrepreneurial activities can imply psychological and institutional aspects. Entrepreneurship, being a sophisticated social phenomenon, does not provide a clear division of drivers by opportunity and necessity, because some women may perceive certain factors (i.e. predicted income from entrepreneurial activities) as an opportunity; at the same time, other women see entrepreneurship as a sole possible way to improve their career perspectives.

Although driving factors could be ambivalent and ambiguous, necessity entrepreneurs and opportunity entrepreneurs generally have their specific features that distinguish one group from the other. Unlike necessity entrepreneurs, opportunity ones wish to create new working places in the area, increase personal wellbeing (financial and social), achieve greater satisfaction and realize personal abilities. Frequently, women leave their working places seeing no chance to do that. Necessity entrepreneurs are generally less skilled and may experience obstacles dealing with documentation. They rarely have extra financial resources and ask micro-finance organizations for financial capital to establish his or her enterprise. Frequently it foredooms business to limited growth. Contrawise, opportunity entrepreneurs (those, who are “pulled” in entrepreneurship) are skilled and more educated. They higher more employees than necessity entrepreneurs and easily go through formal procedures. Their companies are greater in size. Besides that, micro-finance is rarely a source of capital for them. They concentrate activities in city centers and try to accumulate their own resources to avoid financial red tape (Mersha, Sriram, & Hailu, 2010).

In his research papers seeks to explain how institutional and informal characteristics shape entrepreneurship perception among representatives of both genders. Attention is paid both to nascent entrepreneurs and owner-managers of recently established firms and other groups of workers, including unemployed individuals and employees working for an enterprise.

The drivers exploring will be the initial stage followed by statistical analysis defining the influence of previously described factors on the motivation of women's decision to set up their business. Thus, in the pages that follow, major literatures that have investigated the motivation for an entrepreneurial career from diverse points are tied together. The outlook theoretical foundation starts with general motivation consideration for both genders; then, it is completed by the process of scrutinizing research papers pursuing the intention to classify female drivers only.

Primarily, it means that characteristics of such subject as female entrepreneurship will be studied thoroughly: classification of factors will take place. Sourced Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) data are quantitative. The dataset is created based on a population survey in 45 countries worldwide. The sample representability is guaranteed by the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. Several previous studies of well-known scholars, including Langowitz and McMullen, used individual-level survey data to assess entrepreneurship propensity of women. Although the research is of exploratory nature, such a psychological construct as motivation may be barely majored in a single right way. In such a way, a profound theoretical basis is to be depicted.

The strategy used in the paper is a construction of the statistic model with the data collected by the third party. The primary sources of data for similar research designs are organizations studying entrepreneurial activities worldwide and presenting results online in reports (e.g. GEM Global Entrepreneurship Monitor). In fact, the data set chosen for the work is GEM 2015 APS Global Individual Level Data. The primary goal of GEM's research is to demonstrate that not all entrepreneurs are similar. The data contain characteristics, motivations, and ambitions of individuals starting a business; social attitudes towards entrepreneurship are taken into attention.

The previous studies recommendations for the current research were the basis to formulate the hypotheses. They, in turn, will contribute to opportunity entrepreneurship rise caused by improved public policy and better entrepreneurial climate. Surely, the most conspicuous flaws and limitations were diminished (i.e. country's ignoring).

The hypotheses are tested by a binary choice model that will contain selected variables (the most relevant ones in the context of previous studies and dataset available). The binary choice model has several outstanding characteristics: statistically reliable results, simple marginal effects interpretation, influence direction is on a surface, may be easily understood by public authorities and ordinary people with little knowledge of econometrics. However, a large sample is required option (which complicates further research using the same method and data), multicollinearity should be excluded right away. Several categorical variables (i.e. country and gender) and numerical (i.e. household size) will be used. The variables will be chosen based on the former research recommendation and, their meaning is defined in a GEM codebook.

Concerning the time horizon of this research, the period of one year will be studied. Such a time period is optimal and the most relevant, taking into account field specificity and data available. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor guarantees the representativeness of the sample. However, motivation as a psychological concept is subject to changes over time. Further research papers could extend the data by adding the results of other surveys in terms of a time period. However, the results should be interpreted with caution because there is little chance to receive a representative sample of the same people.

The level of entrepreneurship in the country is a significant indicator of economic development. Due to this fact the number of involved people in this process, especially women, plays a great role; the development of female entrepreneurship can be recognized as a way of their economic empowerment (Bui et al., 2018).

Coupled with current issues, it should be mentioned that entrepreneurship was absent in policy discussion since the Great depression up until the 1980s. As small firms were concluded to be more vulnerable and are at higher risk. At that time state agencies focused their attention on ethnic entrepreneurs and other defenseless groups of entrepreneurs (e.g. women), selected enterprise types and industries. Special bodies provided assistance in assuring that a company could go through intense market competition and grow into a successful medium enterprise at the next level.

Acs (2003) points out that 25 different factors influence the number of entrepreneurs in the country. Policy bodies have an ability to change the situation in five fields: entrepreneurship demand and supply sides, opportunity to get fundamental business-related knowledge and skills, favorable treatment of entrepreneurial career, and managerial decisions made by individuals.

Furthermore, the geographical context is bounded with the projected success of any recent actions undertaken by state bodies. Again, attitude towards entrepreneurship could not be changed at once. The speed of changes varies across the world. However, Acs (2003) emphasizes the importance to change the core of society: set a new cultural pattern. If the society of a certain country shows more entrepreneurial culture, it means that inhabitants of the country will give substantial feedback. Residents of countries with entrepreneurship favorable atmosphere get more inspiration brought by successful self-employed individuals.

Although the study has motivating factors classification as a major goal, these results must be interpreted with caution because driving factors observed could not be extrapolated to all countries that demonstrate lower TEA rate among female. Policy-makers should not perceive similar research findings as a panacea for increasing women's involvement in the labor force and entrepreneurship career in particular. No doubt, a gender-blind policy is one of the most horrifying oversights but even female-oriented actions could be doomed (Aidis & Weeks, 2016). The reason for that is a dissimilar type of dominating early-stage entrepreneurship. As noted in GEM 2018/2019 Global Report, the volume of entrepreneurs involved in necessity entrepreneurship drops as economic development of the country rises. Statistics illustrate the phenomena: in countries with low-income status an average of people “pushed” towards an entrepreneurial career is around 35%, whenever the same indicator in high-income economies is minimized (18%). Forty percent of Russians entrepreneurs follow necessity reasons. In other words, more than one-third of entrepreneurs in Russia consider establishing his or her enterprise a last ditch of effort.

Nevertheless, the conditions to begin own business differ among countries; and the importance of the study is to be the base for policy-makers and governments that can organize various start-up programs or courses and suggest the approaches to improvement. These initiatives can be a cause of the increased rate of female entrepreneurship and support economic development. As mentioned above, there is an urgent need to minimize the volume of gender-blind measures and replace them with those targeted solely at groups in need (certain gender, ethnic, and age groups). Moreover, contextual factors and the country's specificity matter. Best practices in one country rarely work out beyond, even when the two countries belong to the same region or demonstrate similar income-level. In addition, the national climate discourages state bodies' actions whenever the female role is conventional and lies deep in traditions. Thus, pressure should be relieved to let women enter the labor force and do it for opportunity reasons.

This study has the following structure: initially, the overview of appropriate articles is conducted, and it identifies the gap of previous researches; secondly, the description and explanation of the selected method of further analysis takes place; the GEM Adult Population Survey as a data source is justified; thirdly, the resulting models are presented, analyzed and compared; fourthly, conclusions, limitations and possible further improvements of the study are suggested. Subsequent utility interpretation takes place.

The total value of the thesis is 63 without appendices. 48 academic papers were scrutinized and cited for current research completion.

1. Theoretical foundation

1.1 Entrepreneur

There are many views at entrepreneurship, entrepreneurs, and their forms. Authors in their papers present definitions that fit the topic of their study, research questions, tasks, and general context. Taking into account the aim of this research paper, the following theoretical assumptions are made.

First of all, with the view to define what factors motivate people to become entrepreneurs, it is necessary to specify who is this a person called “entrepreneur”. Thus, the term “entrepreneur” refers to the person, both man and woman, who is going to establish her or his own business with the aim to gain a profit. This person takes the leading role and position in all the processes of production (Gordon, 2009). The term “entrepreneur” was established by Richard Cantillon, who was the Irishman living in France. According to his studies, an entrepreneur is someone who organizes and assumes the risk of a business in return for the profits (Casson, 2002).

Entrepreneurs are responsible for the following functions: risk assumption, business decision-making, managerial and function of innovation. The business sphere can be described as a sphere with high uncertainty that forces an entrepreneur to face with fast and great changes in trends, innovations and people's preferences. A good entrepreneur assumes such risks and tries to reduce uncertainties by his knowledge, skills and personal characteristics. As any other processes, the business has a great number of stages, or in other words, - steps, where an entrepreneur needs to make a decision and choose what appropriate actions for this particular task are needed to be done. The person, who wants to be successful in business, has to coordinate, organize and also supervise all activities. It is part of his or her managerial function. The last function is innovation, which means the ability of the person to transform the external information about customer's preferences, new technologies, new materials and sources into the product which will be useful for people and will satisfy their needs (Gordon, 2009).

1.2 Entrepreneurship

The entrepreneurship is an important part of daily life now, it gives the vitality to the economy, making it more flourish. It serves an opportunity to get new products and services because entrepreneurs are the people who are driving the changes to transform and renew economies all over the world (Bygrave & Zacharakis, 2011). Entrepreneurs also introduce new methods of production and create new forms of organizations. Regarding these implementations, people have more alternatives in all spheres of life: more trends, opportunities, products, services, higher standards of living, a wider field of vision.

James A. Montanye in his study gave the following definition of entrepreneurship: “it is the process by which individuals acquire ownership (property rights) in the economic rents of their creation” (Montanye, 2006, p.558).

In the book “Entrepreneurship Development” the authors mention several definitions of the term “entrepreneurship” according to different people in the history of entrepreneurial studies. They stated that A.H. Cole defined entrepreneurship as “the purposeful activity of an individual or a group of associated individuals, undertaken to initiate, maintain or organize, a profit-oriented business unit for the production or distribution of economic goods and services (Gordon, 2009, p.14). Or the short definition by Schumpeter “Entrepreneurship is based on purposeful and systematic innovation” (Gordon, 2009, p.14).

Entrepreneurship development includes three phases. The first one is the initial phase which is characterized by the creation of awareness about entrepreneurial opportunities based on different researches and studies. The second phase is development, where an already motivated entrepreneur is properly trained in the sphere of his or her interests and tries to manage the venture successfully and efficiently. And the last phase is the support that means supporting in the form of infrastructure facilities, financial assistance, consultations. Specifically, something that allows the business to operate without dramatic obstacles.

There are some factors stimulating entrepreneurs to take business activity and, as a consequence, raise the economic development in the country. They are capital formation (available capital to start new venture), development programmes (governmental or non-governmental supportive programs for entrepreneurs), training facilities (opportunities for further promoting and developing of the business), suitable environment (transforming the developments of scientific and technical field into economically viable proposal), collateral arrangement (the relationship between business and research for the easy technology implementation), pleasant climate for business activities (promotion and development of entrepreneurial activities) (Gordon, 2009, pp.15-16).

To understand what basics and people's feelings influence on the desire to be the part of entrepreneurship and why it is important to investigate it Bygrave and Zacharakis in the book The Portable MBA in Entrepreneurship discuss the entrepreneurial process in these terms. In the chapter “Critical Factors for Starting a New Enterprise” authors take into account factors - personal, sociological and external - which give a push for a new enterprise. The first thing that happens is the event when a person understands that there is already no better career prospects for him or for her, and decides to build something new and offers it to others. Such a person has the following personal attributes: the dream, the vision of the future project; decisiveness - person does not procrastinate and is ready to do things; the actions, which person is ready to implement; determination -implementation of the ventures with total commitment; giving all of yourself to the idea; the really love the thing that is doing; desire to be independent; desire to earn money; entrepreneur is extremely attentive to the details; entrepreneur distributes the ownership only with people who are interested at the same level on the success of this business.

The thing after personal attributions is the external factors. It is the obvious fact that some of the areas all over the world are more entrepreneurial than others and it has a great influence on the decision to start the business or not. In such areas, it is easier to find the role model that can delight and lead to this entrepreneurial way.

In most cases on the desire to start a business influence the following sociological factors as presence or absence of family, because being single and young it is easier to start a business. Being young people are more optimistic about the future and are riskier, they are ready to work for a long time. They have an opportunity to be fully involved in the entrepreneurial process.

1.3 Female and male entrepreneurship

Female entrepreneurship has a difference with the male one, and it is an important and influencing point that should be covered and observed. First of all, it is interesting to learn what differences are highlighted and identified for today.

Using the qualitative analysis, Escribanoa and Casado in their research “Construction of gender differences in the discourse of entrepreneurship. Psychobiological, cultural and familiar aspects.” Explore how the discourse of starting the business is built from a gender context, focusing on the differences between male and female reasons and conditions to start the business or develop already existed enterprise. They state that the choice of the operating sphere for women focuses mainly on such traditional activities as trade, catering and personal services. As a result, companies boosted by female entrepreneurs have a lower average size than which are promoted by male entrepreneurs. In other words, it can be difficult to see women in the industrial sectors.

So in different countries there are a number of attributes that are associated with gender stereotypes that find a response in the process of socialization. Psychobiological characteristics that are mostly connected with men are rationality, aggression, ambition and autonomy. In other words, something that is close to success in business. While for women relate weakness, empathy and prudence.

If the country identity is considered more deeply, it becomes obvious that it is important to take into account the cultural aspects. In this way, there is a number of countries where it is tended to provide a formation to boys to enter the labor market, while girls are linked to the family and are taught to be a good wife and are facilitated to like domestic tasks. So it depends on all life long, including the moment of education, marriage and family choice.

From the family aspect, it is pointed out that family support is one of the most important condition to start a business. The research states that even today's women occupy more new spaces in professional and entrepreneurial activities, the rate of male involving in domestic tasks does not raise, as a consequence, intuitively woman cannot devote all herself to self-realization and business, and thinks about family too (Escribanoa & Casado, 2016).

1.4 Theory of gender role

There are a lot of alternatives and assumptions about existing differences in gender behavior. So the most relevant and basic thing is the theory of gender role and stereotypes among women and men, which we can see all the time.

The low propensity of female entrepreneurship can be explained by the theory of social roles developed by Eagly A. in 1987 in the study „Sex differences in social behavior: a Social-role interpretation“. The main idea of this theory concludes that in case people to be socially acceptable must develop some stereotypes. And most of these stereotypes are attributed to gender. As a result, the stereotypes are the prejudiced judgment, which affects live, behavior and emotional condition both men and women. Thus, men have a more pronounced desire to achievements while women have more submissive behavior, which is not preferable and useless in the entrepreneurial sphere.

The stereotypes of gender roles are the social acceptable public opinion on both male and female behavior. In other words, in the stereotypes of feminine and masculine role behavior, particular public expectations are reflected. These expectations may be caused in two ways: regulatory and informative pressure. The first way is the system that forces a person to adapt to public opinion and expectation if he or she does not want to be rejected in society. This pressure may be expressed in the fact that girls, who are not following these public expectations in little ages and are becoming unpopular among boys, have a great, meaningful and negative effects in adulthood (Berndt, 1986). The submission to this type of pressure is the willingness to be liked by society (Pratkanis & Aronson, 1992). The second way is founded on the fact that person who is trying to wide her or his field of vision about herself or himself, about the world in common, and who is trying to define what position it is needed to occupy in different social questions, mostly based not on her or his experience and inner feeling but on the information from the external environment (Smith, 1982). Consequently, to define what is right and what is wrong the person tries to know it from the third party and believes that her or his behavior is right and suitable until she or he observes it with others (Cialdini, 1993). The submission to an informative type of pressure is the desire to be right (Pratkanis & Aronson, 1992).

According to these stereotypes, the success of the woman in her life is estimated by the presence of family and by a number of children, while men are estimated by the profession success. Mostly, it connects with the division of labor by gender appurtenance. And the most basic criteria to this division is the women ability to bear children. It leads to the world, where women are responsible for home tasks, doing household staff and caring for children every day and the world, where men are responsible to bring money to the home and run the business.

Substantially, to the today world such division is not so popular, however, there are a number of countries where it is still actual.

1.5 The person role in the society

As it was mentioned above the level of feminine entrepreneurship is rather lower, comparing with masculine one. However, this gap can vary across different countries due to the fact that there is an impact of different roles and stereotypes of entrepreneurial behavior.

It can be stated that women are less entrepreneurial from sociology factors. It covers stereotypes that connect with gender and roles which women and men play in society. Beside these stereotypes, for a long time in the society men were positioned through different ideologies, speeches reinforce and some patterns, as a dominant force in the labor market. Secondly, the values and national culture influence on the willingness to start the business. In the case that each country differently encourages entrepreneurial behavior, in countries where ambitions, competitiveness and achievements are more preferable to the masculine group of the population, the level of female entrepreneurship obviously is lower. It is also stated that for women is more difficult to adapt in the areas where there is a need to be rational because they mostly rely on emotional aspects that spur the actions (Rubio-Banóna & Esteban-Lloret, 2016).

Moreover, in the study (Rubio-Banóna & Esteban-Lloret, 2016) authors like Godwin L. N., Stevens C. E., Brenner N. L. are mentioned, who argued that female entrepreneurship is discriminated already on the primary level of the business beginning, when women do not have full access to resources needed for business, for example, they receive less entrepreneurial credits than men because of the stereotype that female group is not good at money managing. Or another example that a certain role in an organization cannot be played by women because she does not have enough skills to perform her duties in an efficient manner.

The cultural factors, beliefs and values differ across countries and influence on the opinions toward entrepreneurship. That said that the investigations are not random and the entrepreneurial behavior can be predicted. Here the Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory takes place and states that the following dimensions such as power distance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, control of the uncertainty, long-term or short-term oriented and the indulgence and restriction can influence on the importance of entrepreneurship on both collective and individual levels. From the theory, it is obvious that the countries with a high scale of masculinity dimension tend to be more gender differentiate and it is expected to have a higher rate of entrepreneurship in the country. And on the other hand, countries with feminine values have a greater tendency to paid employment.

Alicia Rubio-Banón and Nuria Esteban-Lloret in the research Cultural Factors and Gender Role in Female Entrepreneurship investigated the difference of women and men entrepreneurship from a cultural perspective in 55 countries and gender breach, analyzing the GEM data of 2013 of phone or face-to-face interviews with adults, who are 18-64 years, with a standardized questionnaire. In the results of this study, it is stated that there is no direct relationship between the level of masculinity and the rate of entrepreneurship in the country.

1.6 Factors to become an entrepreneur

The study “A research on women's entrepreneurship motivation: Sample of Adana Province”, which is written by Özsungur F. in 2019 determined what factors affect female entrepreneurship. The sample of this research is the province Adana that is in the 10 top developing industry provinces in Turkey. This province is chosen because it carries the cultural characteristics of both Asia and Europe. There are 150 people who started their own business and it is a sample of the following study. The author used both methods of analyzing qualitative and quantitative. The results from demographic characteristics show that 28% of the participated women are single, 50% have a bachelor degree and 37,1% are women, who 46 and over years old.

The main support and motivation factor for the entrepreneurial process for these women is the bootstrap. At the second place it is highlighted the benefit of family supporting and the other answers consist of the response “angel investment”.

The important fact is that almost half of the answers consist of the information that the current or past father's profession is entrepreneurship. It demonstrates the importance of the father's role model in the desire to start the business. The reason for the attitude to start a business is the individual economic development, answered by 45,5% of respondents. The 86,4% of participants are registered in the chamber of commerce and it shows that few entrepreneurs are operating in the manufacturing industry (Özsungur, 2019).

More than half of the respondents answered that the factors influencing on entrepreneurial activities vary across gender. The described pull factors include something that makes business attractive through internal motivation. The push one is external. Balance factors imply the balance between work and family. The last emotional factors are work commitment, personal supporting, social networks and others. The correlation shows that there is a poor connection between the push and balance factors. The low between push and pull, low between emotional and pull, push, balance, and just a moderate connection between the balance and push factors (Özsungur, 2019).

The respondents referred justice, innovation, dream to pull factors; prove oneself, children, justice to push factors; hold on to the life by oneself to balance factors; and self-confidence, mobbing and dream to emotional factors.

1.7 The supporting atmosphere for entrepreneurship

The great role for female entrepreneurship plays the supporting sphere, where the woman knows that she is not alone in business, and where the success of other women can inspire to do more. Moreover, a common policy response to raise the level of entrepreneurship is the organization of different business training and counseling programs. To study the influence of such events and the importance of supporting sphere Field E., Jayachandran S., Pande R. and Rigol N. in 2016 conducted a research "Friendship at Work: Can Peer Effects Catalyze Female Entrepreneurship?". The research discovers that the low number of successful female entrepreneurs can make a contribution to weak business performance and behavior. The analysis is made in the field of the experiment in which randomly selected women were provided with a short business counseling program, which was handling two half-days with two hours of in-class training per day. During this program, women were taught basic financial literacy and also business skills, which can raise the level of their performance. Moreover, it was shown the film that covers the successful role models in the society and there was a trainer who was working with the goals of these women and helped them to transform just goals into actionable steps.

There were such benefits from business training event for women, who came with a friend, as a more supportive environment and a higher level of information influencing on classroom experience. The competition also can take place and influence on performance in case not to be the last with the feeling of pressure. Moreover, this supporting sphere creates more strength social network that can be useful in the future. Such social network can take any possible final form: financial, informational or further common business involving. On the other hand, women who attended the event alone may be less likely to talk to anyone in case that other participants can already know each other. It has a negative influence because there is no opportunity to discuss and share the opinion.

After this experiment, the survey was conducted in the case to explore the output of such training events. The results show that those women, who had been invited with a friend, reported the changes in their business behavior. It included a higher volume of business and stricter plans to increase profits from their businesses and, moreover, they highlight the raising of household income and expenditures. They are less likely to report their occupation as “housewife”. While women, who came alone without an accompanying person, reported no changes in their outcomes.

Consequently, authors come to the conclusion that the motivation and desire to start the business fully connect with adequate support among other women who also start or already expand their business activities. (Field, Jayachandran, Pande & Rigol, 2016).

1.8 Internal and external motivation

The difference between the number of men and women-entrepreneurs is noticeable virtually in every country around the globe. Female entrepreneurship has attracted people's attention as it is of high significance in terms of economic growth and development (Bui et al., 2018). Hence, it is important to establish the reasons for this imbalance (Terrell & Troilo, 2010).

The growth of female entrepreneurship has exceeded that of male's overtaken the noticeable gap within the last decade. Moreover, this trend is considered a sustainable phenomenon (Bianchi, Parisi & Salvatore, 2016). Female entrepreneurs are "major force for innovation and job creation" in the state economy (Orhan, Scott, 2001, p.232).

It is believed that “a woman's decision to establish her own business is likely to be influenced by a combination of pull and push factors” (McGowan et al., 2012, p.55). Nevertheless, some scholars believe that women have been historically “pushed” rather than “pulled” towards entrepreneurial career (McGowan et al., 2012). Scientists believe that there is no standard profile of drivers (Xavier, Ahmad, Nor & Yusof, 2012). In other words, women's motivation for establishing an enterprise is rarely a set of solely “push” or “pull” motivators. Negative and positive motivators are frequently combined.

Entrepreneurial motivation is subject to institutions influence in the government. The research performed by McMullen et.al. examined the relationship between government-related factors and the type of entrepreneurial activities: opportunity and necessity-motivated ones. It is of high importance to differentiate the nature of entrepreneurial motivation. Frequently there is an imbalance in terms of state policy towards supporting opportunity-motivated entrepreneurs. Using the data sourced from the Heritage Foundation/Wall Street Journal Index of Economic Freedom (IEF), as well as data from the 2002 GEM study a regression model was built to trace the dependence of necessary-motivated and opportunity-motivated entrepreneurship on economic freedom and GDP per capita variables in 37 countries. It was hypothesized that interest in establishing a new enterprise is higher whenever other sources of income decline (start bringing less). Several hypotheses were built basing on Rational Choice Theory. Data on opportunity and necessity entrepreneurship were obtained from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. The dependent variable was presented by TEA value (Total Entrepreneurship Activity). TEA value includes both those who have been motivated by necessity and those who are “pulled” towards entrepreneurship. The sample was dated to the year of 2002: back then two-thirds of entrepreneurs chose entrepreneurship among other options for its opportunity perspectives. Among independent variables, there was the logarithm of GDPpc from the GEM data set, and other 50 independent variables from the 2003 Heritage/Wall Street Journal IEF (i.e. trade freedom, monetary freedom, labor freedom determining variables, etc.). The results proved that entrepreneurial activities grow when opportunity and transaction costs go down. The study also suggests that high stable salaries within the country refrain entrepreneurship growth regardless of motivation type. What is more, necessity-motivated entrepreneurs are “pushed” by high tax rates, government intervention into economic activities, wage and price control, and other economic freedom limitations. In circumstances of intense state regulations and interference, an entrepreneur loses its power of authority and has little influence on the further success of the enterprise.

In this paper, the author argues that entrepreneurship by opportunity is generally more advanced comparing to that of necessity. For instance, OME (opportunity-motivated entrepreneurship) is related to higher innovativeness. It comes from the idea that entrepreneurs “pulled” in an employer career are more self-aware: their choice is made basing on internal considerations. In contrast, entrepreneurship as a last resort is mostly shaped by the external environment, including society and its accepted norms. Likewise, many of the latter occasionally miss the chance to elaborate on a business model and an overall strategy and to set the sound goals of their future business enterprises. Thus, the overall performance of such last-minute shaped organizations is lower resulted in reduced earnings. What is more, for NME (necessity-motivated entrepreneurs) reproduction of already existing companies is fairly commonplace.

Due to practical constraints, this paper cannot determine causal relationships between opportunity and transaction costs and entrepreneurship activities motivation of two types mentioned above. The study may be revised and improved by simply including information on more countries. However, the potential problem is limited data available for cross country analysis (McMullen et al., 2013).

Any business cannot either be established or succeed without proper motivation. Positive ("pull") motivation has an advantage over "push" motivation leading to success in the distant future (Robertson et al., 2013). It is highly important to distinguish female motivators from those of males because female's motivators give ground for building a policy favorable for female entrepreneurship (Orhan, Scott, 2001).

A closer look at the research earlier conducted on women entrepreneurs confirms a series of flaws. Ahl (2006), in turn, refers to the following drawbacks: a lack of theoretical grounding, a one-sided empirical focus, the disregard of factual and cultural components, the usage of male-gendered measuring instruments, etc. All in all, women are portrayed as secondary actors in business activities. Hence, it is extremely important to elaborate studies on female entrepreneurship.

1.9 Opportunity and necessity motivation

In the study “Opportunity versus Necessity Entrepreneurship: Two Components of Business Creation” authors write that the basement of the choice to become self-employed according to theoretical models is a comparison of potential income from own business and of a salary work.

People decide to become self-employed if the potential income from the self-business activity is higher than the potential income from stable salary work. In the research authors classify entrepreneurs into opportunity and necessity categories in the following ways: they define that person, who is unemployed before starting his own business, is a “necessity” entrepreneur; a person, who is already employed worker or enrolls college or is not an active searcher for a job, is an „opportunity” entrepreneur.

Fairlie and Fossen explored three sources of data: the U.S. Current Population Survey, the German Micro Census and the German Socio-Economic Panel. These sources provide the data with a lot of observations, represent the national unemployment rate monthly and consist of socio-demographic various variables. The built regression shows that the probability of opportunity entrepreneurship is not strongly associated with the national unemployment rate comparing with the probability of necessity entrepreneurship that associates positively. The controls variable for this regression results were regional and urbanity trends. Commonly, the authors define that total entrepreneurship has a positive association with local unemployment rates.

Moreover, it is stated that It is difficult to define what industries are more preferable to start own business, nevertheless, authors line up that generally opportunity entrepreneurship is more spread across industries with higher barriers to enter (Fairlie & Fossen, 2018).

1.10 “Pull” motivating factors

The first key area of this review concerns is “pull” motivation, i.e. women are attracted by benefits offered by the opportunity to run their own business. P. McGowan conducted a series of two-stage interviews with fourteen entrepreneurs in Northern Ireland and revealed that all women were tempted by entrepreneurship to some extent. Among motivating factors there is a desire to challenge their professional activities, recognition of their personal accomplishments, freedom in decision-making, flexible working hours, and better work-life balance. It is especially crucial for young women, doing a double shift. What is more, they usually have a lack of professional advancement to find a suitable working place, however, for young women it appears as "pull" to begin the entrepreneurship (Walker and Webster, 2007). It is particularly relevant for women in developing countries. They choose an entrepreneurial career because women have no other choice. In such cases, unemployment protection is poor or absent. Hence, females set up enterprises after negative working experience or searching without find (Langowitz, Minniti 2007).

It is worth mentioning that none of the women involved in McGowan's research emphasized the financial pillar as a “pull” factor. Even though a possibility to increase one's income may not be the main motivation for women, financial support and provision of start-up capital may be essential (Naser, Rashid Mohammed & Nuseibeh, 2009).

Similarly, Sara and Peter (1998) reported contradiction among present studies dedicated to measuring financial aid received by women and men planning to establish or promote his or her enterprise. To compare the extent of financial aid, a customized academic survey was fulfilled. 600 companies were selected for forming a cross-section. The results suggest that gender has its effect on the received financial aid, but it is not the only one influencing the fact of material aid recipiency. Particularly, authors focused on four capitals for business purposes characteristics: start-up capital raise, usage of guarantees, ongoing finance obtainment, relationship with lenders. The thing splitting this study of the rest ones is its rigorous approach. Previous studies highlighted in the text were carried out in an exploratory manner.