Prophet Sulayman in Classical Persian Poetry: Semantics and Structure of the Image

The key feature of prophet Sulayman is the ambivalent nature of this character and the resulting ambiguity in the perception of his image in poetry. On the one hand, Sulayman is an example of a wise king and a fair judge, practically, an ideal ruler; on the other hand, his unlimited power over people, animals and demons made him conceited and arrogant. The king was punished for his pride: his magic ring was lost and people immediately ceased to recognize him, his throne was usurped by demon (or genie - according to the Qur'anic version), who took his form, and he himself was exiled. "Certainly We tried Solomon, and We cast upon his throne a mere body; then he repented" Here and henceforth the Qur'an is cited by Arberry's translation [38:34].

This duality of the image implies its dual use in Persian poetry: as a flattering comparison in eulogy and sometimes in lyrical poetry, and as an instructive element in religious and didactic works. It appears reasonable to base the discussion about the use of Sulayman's image in eulogies on those typical features which literary and religious tradition has endowed this character with. Perhaps for the western reader Solomon/Sulayman is most renowned for his wisdom. This feature characterizes Sulayman (and, accordingly, the person to be praised) first and foremost as a good and prudent ruler. Such an example can be found in a qasida by Anvari (1126-1189), praising Sultan Sanjar (ruled 1118-1153):

Anvari [10, p. 89]

Your judgment, when it runs affairs of the state, will rest on a hand [as the ring] of Sulayman.

However, when comparing the praised one with Sulayman poets focused usually not on wisdom and prudence, but on power and greatness of the ruler. In famous qasida "Mother of Wine" by Rudaki (858-941) we find probably the very first mention of Sulayman in classical Persian literature in this context:

Rudaki [11, p. 101]

If you see him sitting in a place of honour, you will only say: Sulayman has come back to life.

Farrukhi (980-1037) also uses image of Sulayman to praise a skillful ruler and commander:

Farrukhi [12, p. 224]

In ruling the state and capturing the enemy in a war you are like Sulayman and will replace Faridun.

Examples where the name of the person being praised matches that of the Qur'anic prophet are of particular interest. In such cases poets usually could not resist the temptation to use wordplay to emphasize the resemblance of their patron to the legendary king not only in greatness, power and wisdom, but also in the name itself. Such lines were dedicated to Khaqan Sulayman Khan by Rashid ad-Din Vatvat (1080/81-1177/78 or 1182/83):

Rashid ad-DIn Vatvat [13]

Where your glory is, the sun and the moon are insignificant, where your mercy is, the sea and the mine are meagre.

You are the one, who befits Sulayman's name, you are the one to whom Sulayman's tradition is clear.

In the context of comparison, Sulayman's image is often used next to the image of another legendary king who has become a symbol of an ideal ruler in poetry - Jamshid (Jam), It is not uncommon for these images to be contaminated. This becomes apparent when the name of Jamshid is used in episodes clearly related to Sulayman, e.g., the motif of possessing power ring, or related to Sulayman's vizier, Asif:

Mu`izzi [14, p. 478]

And if Asif the counselor had been in service to you, demon would have never possessed the ring of Jam.

Mu`izzi [14, p. 492]

Your counselor in your kingdom and wealth, is blessed just as Asif in the kingdom and wealth of Jam.

The fact of such contamination is widely known and has been mentioned many times by different researchers (for example [15, p. 145]). Dizfulian and Suhrayi note that the reasons for this kind of contamination could have been both mistakes of scribes as well as deliberate emphasizing of the connection between these characters. Common features include power available to both kings, might, size of the territory under their rule and the fact that the time of their reign is considered to be a "golden age", as well as the fact that they both had a share of authority not only in the affairs of the state but also in relation to religious tenets [9, p. 77-78]. Possibly, by using this kind of contamination the poets deliberately sought to emphasize the succession of Islamic art in relation to the old Zoro- astrian traditions.

Inseparable from the motifs of Sulayman's power is the theme of pride and humility, as well as the discussion of vanity and righteousness which has been given special importance in religious-mystical poetry. All of Sulayman's might, majesty and wealth according to Sufi doctrine are regarded as something valuable only in the material, earthly world, something that is easy to lose and that will inevitably be lost upon entering the other world. Reference to Sulayman's wealth and the power given to him by the ring may be used as a reminder of the frailty of earthly life:

Khvaju Kirmani [16, p. 497]

In the end, the tent of thine happiness will be carried away by the wind, [even if] through that ring thou possessest the whole kingdom of Sulayman.

In didactic poetry Sulayman's wealth is usually mentioned in the context of appeal to be humble and content with minor things:

Anvar! [17]

Since begging is nothing [else] but desiring, everyone who desires [something], regardless of whether he is Sulayman or Qarun, is a beggar.

Structure of the image

In the aspect of composition, image of Sulayman is constructed from a set of motifs based on the Qur'anic stories. We will try to show how each story has received literary interpretation on the example of separate poetic passages.

Sulayman and ants. The narrative of the conversation between Sulayman and the ants is one of the most frequently used of all stories associated with this Qur'anic prophet. This episode is often seen as a demonstration of justice by a mighty ruler even towards the smallest creatures in his kingdom:

`Iraq! [18, p. 291]

If I become ashes in her way, she will not step on me -

Oh no, how can she step on Sulayman's ant?

In the combination of motifs based on the story of Sulayman's meeting with the ants, the main technique is an opposition. These motifs are used when the author wants to show the contrast between wealth and poverty, power and weakness, spiritual nobility and dishonesty. Such a comparison may appear in the context of preaching humility and humbleness:

Hafiz [19]

Looking at dervishes is not contrary to greatness, [After all] Sulayman, with all his splendor, looked at an ant many times.

The opposition "Sulayman vs. ant" is also found in ghazals, where a lyrical hero tells that he is not worthy of his beloved's attention:

Hafiz [20]

In the hour when a saddle is put on the back of the wind, how can I chase Sulayman if an ant serves as my horse?

The story about Sulayman and the ants is also used in philosophical poetry. In such cases, Sulayman is compared with God and the ants are equated with his creations:

Rum! [21, vol. 4, p. 167]

Nothingness is the sea, and this world is foam, there is [only] one Sulayman, and these creatures are like ants.

Below are a couple of examples of using images of Sulayman and the ants in a philosophical and mystical context. In these ghazals Rum! compares ants with vile desires of sensual soul, which disappear when mystical love identified with Sulayman appears:

Rum! [21, vol. 5, p. 77]

He is an ant who undermined the Palace of Love.

Although he has no wings but he dreams of passion.

Do not call him an ant in ignorance, he is the Sulayman of his time, for he had a dream of throne and kingdom.

Rum! [21, vol. 4, p. 163]

Oh, love, you are Sulayman, and sama' Sama' (Јb^) - is a special kind of sufi gathering where music was performed, poetry and Quranic verses were read for the purpose of meditation. is your army!

In fear of you, ants have hidden in their holes.

In such comparisons, as we can see, authors sometimes go quite far from the original Quranic narrative of Sulayman and the ants where this episode is described very briefly and the main emphasis is placed on justice and modesty of Sulayman who with all his greatness and power condescended not to trample the houses of ants on the way of his army.

Another story which must be mentioned when talking about Sulayman and the ants is about an ant that once came to the court of King Sulayman with a very modest gift - a locust leg. The original source of this legend is unclear, but it has become so firmly entrenched in Persian-language poetic tradition that it formed a stable metaphor: a locust leg (or a gift of an ant) is a very small favor or a useless gift which nevertheless took a lot of effort to prepare. There's a proverb:

-- literally

"To send a locust leg to Sulaymans court". In the dictionary of Dehhuda, such proverbs as ("To bring cumin to Kerman") and ("To bring dates to Hadjer") [22, vol. 4, p. 4714] are given as synonyms to this expression.

In poetry the story of an ant giving Sulayman a locust leg can be used in the context of the author's self-abasement, when he presents his modest literary work to his patron:

Anvar! [23]

I'm ashamed to send a locust leg to Sulayman's court,

I'm afraid of the mockery of basil, because I'm sending a thorn to the flower garden.

`Iraq! [18, p. 69]

Like an ant, I am bringing a locust as a present to Sulayman -

[This is like] a song of insect buzzing for Davud's gathering.

However, despite the fact that for the mighty king a locust leg is a rather modest offering, for the ant it was worth a lot of work, and Sulayman did not ignore his efforts and appreciated this gift and singled it out among all other gifts that were brought to his court. From this point of view, the narrative of an ant and locust leg can be seen in the context of moral teachings: whatever gift is made to you, be grateful, for it is not a gift that is valuable, but the effort.

Sana'! [24, p. 142]

In thy garden there are Tuba tree of Paradise and the Lote-Tree of the Utmost Boundary Lote-Tree of the Utmost Bondary (^--) is a tree that marks the border of the seventh heaven which no living creature can pass. The only one allowed beyond this boundary was Muhammad on the night of the Mi`raj [25, p. 92].

And then a handful of unworthy people brings a bunch of thorny shrubs to your meeting.

Don't reject their gift -- it's like a swarm of ants brings a locust leg to Sulayman.

The ring of Sulayman. Sulayman's ring is an essential attribute of this king and the source of his power over animals, demons and winds.

Sana'! [24, p. 724]

Oh, be happy! Sharia` without you is like Musa without his staff.

Oh, live long! Science without you is like Sulayman without his ring.

By saying "power" we are referring not only to royal power, but also to the kind of power that beloved one has over the heart of lover:

Hafiz [26]

Her slender sweet lips are like the kingdom of Sulayman,

For the carving of her ruby signet-ring (i.e. her lips) has subdued the world.

In the example above Hafiz plays with the image of Sulayman's ring and expression

--

"to rule, to govern", and literally "to have [somebody] under the ring".

However, in most cases, the image of Sulayman's ring appears in the context of motifs related to the Qur'anic story about the exile of Sulayman and the seizure of power by the demon. Mu`izzi uses this motif to praise masterful leadership:

Mu`izzi [14, p. 362]

And if Sulayman had an excellent counselor like you, How could a demon steal from him his ring, crown and throne?

The motif of the lost ring and loss of power is used particularly often in didactic and mystical Sufi poetry. The topics of pride and humility, vanity and righteousness, as well as the frailty of human life run through all the motifs associated with the image of prophet Sulayman. Ousting Sulayman from his throne, which was a punishment for the king's excessive pride and conceit, is one of the central episodes of Sulayman's entire narrative. From this point of view, the comparison of a patron to this prophet takes rather form of warning and moral:

Sayf Farghani [27, p. 240]

You are Sulayman, the faith is like a ring, and demon is a sensual soul.

From your hand [he] will steal this ring - do not be reckless.

To every Sulayman who possesses the ring of command at this time The witchcraft of demons has been submitted - do not be reckless.

The image of Sulayman is also often associated with piety. In the following example, we see how Jalal ad-Din Rumi uses the image of a ring as an allegory of righteousness:

Rumi [21, vol. 4, p. 68]

Keep your fast, for this is Sulayman's ring.

Don't give demon the ring, don't destroy your state.

Sulayman and demons. Motifs of Sulayman's power over the demons give poets numerous opportunities to compare their patrons with this Qur'anic character. One of the favorite images of Persian poets is demons working for Sulayman. The praised ruler is usually compared to Sulayman, and his enemies to demons:

Anvari [10, p. 157]

The sky is lower than the foot of your castle, [All the] time is limited compared to the time of your life.

The kingdom of Sulayman is yours, and in obedience your enemy is the demon laborer in [your] abode.

The image of the demon (div in Persian) often appears in Sufi poetry: like the ant, it is opposed to Sulayman as the low to the sublime, the earthly to the divine, and the sensual soul to the divine spirit:

Rumi [21, vol. 2, p. 13]

When Sulayman leaves, demon becomes the shah.

When patience and reason are gone, your sensual soul takes over.

Sulayman's power over the wind. Sulaymans power over the wind is mentioned three times in the Quran: 38:36, 21:81 and 34:12. It is noteworthy that the general trend is towards the use of a semantic connotation of lightness and tenderness: poets usually used the neutral word j/j (wind) or (morning refreshing wind) to indicate the wind. The latter word can often be seen next to the consonant name of the country whose ruler was Bilqis - Saba (l-ш).

Ibn Hisam Khusfi [28]

Oh, morning breeze, be a servant at the spread carpet of Saba every moment, Especially when hoopoe reaches Sulayman's court.

There are two main duties that Sulayman's wind performed: first, he served the king as a vehicle, and second, he could deliver him rumours and news from all over the world [9, p. 29-30]. In the role of transport, the wind is often mentioned together with the throne Bilqis or the Sulayman himself, flying or floating in the air:

Anvari [10, p. 141]

You are Sulayman, and under you is a horse [like] a moving throne.

The throne magically rests on the air like a fog.

Sa`di [29, p. 568]

You would say that he is Sulayman, [sitting] in his palanquin, For his throne rests on the morning breeze.

The wind as Sulayman's messenger is often referred to in the context of the meeting of Sulayman's army with ants: according to some versions, it was the wind that brought the weak voice of an ant to the king's ears.

`Imad Faqlh [8, p. 30]

Do me a favor, oh, morning breeze, tell

The story of an ant if you reach Sulayman.

Ibn Hisam Khusfi [30]

Wind, bring my story to the judge of the ages,

As the wind told about what happened to ants to Sulayman.

Khvaju Kirmani [16, p. 483]

Oh, wind, bring the singing of the nightingale to the flower garden,

Bring the story of an ant to the court of Sulayman.

As in the case of motifs associated with Sulayman's ring, while referring to the wind, poets often resorted to the wordplay based on common Persian phraseological expressions, such as j^j Ai jj/Aj (to die, to be destroyed, to be wasted, literally "to be scattered in the wind").

Sa`di [29, p. 950]

Wasn't Sulayman's throne carried away by the wind - and that's it?

For wherever there is a throne, it will go with the wind.

Hafiz [31]

There shall be [only] a wind in thy hands, if thou shalt put thy whole heart into naught [as] in the case of the throne of Sulayman, [which] was carried away by the wind. Another phraseological expression which often appears in the context of moral teachings about the futility of earthly existence and which emphasizes Sulayman's connection with the wind is that is to rely on the corrupted world, on human life (literally "to tie a knot on the wind"):

Hafiz [32]

Do not rely on the wind, even if it blows towards your desires,

For it is like words that the wind said to Sulayman.

Language of the birds. The motifs of Sulayman's power over birds and his ability to understand their language are particularly important in revealing the character's image and understanding his role in Persian classical literature. A special place among these motifs is occupied by the image of hoopoe. Due to the Qur'anic story about the flight of hoopoe to the state of Saba medieval poets viewed this bird primarily as a messenger of Sulayman:

Sayf Farghani [33, vol. 2, p. 313]

I was a hoopoe-spy for this Sulayman-wise governor,

I took the letter to Saba and went back.

The hoopoe is often mentioned together with another messenger of Sulayman - the wind, or even compared with it:

All these sounds do not bring me that sweetness which is brought by the avowal of fidelity [coming] from the land of my friend.

Like yesterday, without the labors of a pigeon or a messenger, a letter from the Lord of time has been brought to me by the wind You say correctly: the Lord of time is Sulayman, the wind is like the hoopoe, and my abode of labor is like Saba.

One more example: the beginning of a qasida by Salman Savaji:

Salman Savaji [34]

Hoopoe will bring [news about] the state of the wind to Sulayman,

The messenger will bring Salman's message to the Prophet Here again we see a wordplay: the name Salman may refer to the poet himself as well as to one of the most famous associates of the Prophet Muhammad, Salman Farisi, the first Persian to adopt Islam [35]..

In a broader context, the image of hoopoe can be seen as a symbol of any good message (): if there is good news, people say the hoopoe brought it.

Hafiz [36]

The wind in delivering good news is [like] the hoopoe of Sulayman,

Who brought the joyful message of pleasure from the Saba garden.

The image of the hoopoe is particularly important in mystical poetry. It will suffice to mention that in the famous poem by Farid ad-Din `Attar "Mantiq-at-Tayr" ("The conference of the birds") one of the main characters is hoopoe who acts as a mentor to other birds, guiding them on their path to self-awareness and merging with the divine Absolute represented by mythical bird Simurg. Thus, `Attar identifies hoopoe with murshid, the mentor, while the other birds are his disciples (murid) to whom he passes on his mystical knowledge. The role of hoopoe as Sulayman's messenger is reinterpreted in a Sufi way: his flight to the kingdom of Saba is the mystical connection between mind and spirit - the rationalistic and the divine - which every Sufi seeks to attain.

Sayf FarghanI [27, p. 22]

If ink takes shape and sees the space of the Spiritual World through the tightness of letters, to the court of Sulayman-spirit hoopoe-mind will bring news of the great throne from Saba of words.

Sulayman's ability to understand the language of birds is also given special meaning in mystical lyrics. The language of birds represents a special symbolic Sufi language, and Sulayman, who speaks it, is a sheikh who can be an interpreter for those who have not yet learnt the secret knowledge:

Ibn Hisam Khusfl [37]

Tell Adam about paradise,

Ask the elder from Canaan about the sorrow over Yusuf6.

What do you know of the bird language?

Ask Sulayman about the story of the hoopoe.

RumI [21, vol. 4, p. 192]

Birds in secret tell a hundred thousand mysteries that this one is going to leave [this world] and that one takes his place.

The hoopoes brought letters from Sulayman.

Where is he who knows the language of birds to become an interpreter?

Sometimes a poet himself acts as a hoopoe who translates the words of divine knowledge into a language people could understand and shows them the way to unite with the Absolute. In such cases, the poet draws parallels between the relationship of the hoopoe and Sulayman and the connection between a Sufi in love and his mystical beloved. The hoopoe is considered to be a lover who needs the intimacy and help of Sulayman, the beloved. ⁶ An elder from Canaan - Yakub, father of Yusuf, who, according to the Qur'anic legend, cried so bitterly about his missing son that went blind [25, p. 90-100].

Sayf FarghanI [33, vol. 2, p. 149]

Oh, you, who is talking to [thy] slave like Yusuf to Zulaikha, [thy] slave speaks to you like hoopoe to Sulayman.

This is how RumI in the conclusion of one of his ghazals addresses his friend and teacher Shams TabrIzI:

RumI [21, vol. 1, p. 256]

Show your face in the east, glorious sun of Tabriz!

I'm hoopoe, my dream is of Sulayman's presence.

Sulayman and Bilqis. The themes of mystical love are also reflected in the motifs based on the Sulayman's meeting with the Queen of Saba In the Qur'an, Queen of Saba is not called by name. Name "BilqIs" apparently came to Persian literary tradition from Islamic legends, where the story of Queen of Sheba and Sulayman was greatly enriched with details as compared with that of the Qur'an [40].. It is noteworthy that despite the absence of any hints of Sulayman's and BilqIs's love affair in the Bible, at an early stage of romanization, in aggadic literature, and later in the Qur'an and in tafsirs, the story of their encounter acquires the features of a romantic love story, which could not but be reflected in poetry [38, p. 147]. This narrative is integrated harmoniously into the context of Sufi poetry and stands alongside with other traditional love stories of Persian literature:

Shah Ni`matullah WalI [39]

Look for the love of Layla in Majnun's heart, Ask Sulayman about affection to BilqIs.

Sulayman and Asif. Speaking of the image of Sulayman, it is impossible to ignore the image of his closest counsellor - Asif. The legendary vizier of Sulayman is mentioned relatively rarely in the works of Persian poets - less frequently than BilqIs and much less frequently than Sulayman himself. However, the image of Asif is undoubtedly important for Persian poetry - it embodies the qualities needed for the shah's wise advisor and symbolizes rationality and skill in governing the state. These attributes provide a basis for comparison in panegyrics:

Mu`izzI [14, p. 302]

Although Asif has a talent in science and art and although Ahnaf May be referring to Ahnaf Ibn Qays, commander and associate of Muhammad [22, vol. 1, p. 12551257]. has a [high] rank in gentleness and dignity,

Asif is not as learned in science and wisdom as you, Ahnaf is not as strong in gentleness and dignity as you.

Poets in their eulogies were required to follow a certain hierarchy when comparing theis patron with some legendary character. According to this order, the vizier was usually compared with Asif, while the shah was compared with Sulayman.

The poetry has adopted the version that it was Asif who transferred the throne of Bilqis from Saba to the court of Sulayman in the blink of an eye, although the Qur'an does not name the person who did it. It simply refers to a man who "possessed knowledge from the book" [27:40]:

Farrukhi [12, p. 21]

Asif took the throne from Saba,

[And] you [took] a kingdom that is like a thousand kingdoms of Saba.

Conclusion