The scientific prose style, its substyles and their peculiarities

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The Scientific Prose Style, its Substyles and their Peculiarities

The style of scientific prose has 3 subdivisions:

1) the style of humanitarian sciences;

2) the style of "exact" sciences;

3) the style of popular scientific prose.

Its function is to work out and ground theoretically objective knowledge about reality

The aim of communication is to create new concepts, disclose the international laws of existence.

The peculiarities are: objectiveness; logical coherence, impersonality, unemotional character, exactness.

Vocabulary. The use of terms and words used to express a specialized concept in a given branch of science. Terms are not necessarily. They may be borrowed from ordinary language but are given a new meaning.

The scientific prose style consists mostly of ordinary words which tend to be used in their primary logical meaning. Emotiveness depends on the subject of investigation but mostly scientific prose style is unemotional.

Grammar: The logical presentation and cohesion of thought manifests itself in a developed feature of scientific syntax is the use of established patterns.

- postulatory;

- formulative;

- argumentative;

The impersonal and objective character of scientific prose style is revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions, impersonal sentences. Personal sentences are more frequently used in exact sciences. In humanities we may come across constructions but few.

The parallel arrangement of sentences contributes to emphasizing certain points in the utterance.

Some features of the style in the text are:

- use of quotations and references;

- use of foot-notes helps to preserve the logical coherence of ideas.

Humanities in comparison with "exact" sciences employ more emotionally coloured words, fewer passive constructions.

Scientific popular style has the following peculiarities: emotive words, elements of colloquial style

The Style of Official Documents and its Substyles

1) Language of business letters;

2) Language of legal documents;

3) Language of diplomacy;

4) Language of military documents; The aim:

1. to reach agreement between two contracting parties;

2. to state the conditions binding two parties in an understanding. Each of substyles of official documents makes use of special terms. Legal documents: military documents, diplomatic documents. The documents use set expressions inherited from early Victorian period. This vocabulary is conservative. Legal documents contain a large proportion of formal and archaic words used in their dictionary meaning. In diplomatic and legal documents many words have Latin and French origin. There are a lot of abbreviations and conventional symbols.

The most noticable feature of grammar is the compositional pattern. Every document has its own stereotyped form. The form itself is informative and tells you with what kind of letter we deal with.

Business letters contain: heading, addressing, salutation, the opening, the body, the closing, complimentary clause, the signature. Syntactical features of business letters are - the predominance of extended simple and complex sentences, wide use of participial constructions, homogeneous members.

Morphological peculiarities are passive constructions, they make the letters impersonal. There is a tendency to avoid pronoun reference. Its typical feature is to frame equally important factors and to divide them by members in order to avoid ambiguity of the wrong interpretation.

The Newspaper FS, its Substyles and their Peculiarities

To understand the language peculiarities of English newspaper style it will be sufficient to analyse the following basic newspaper features:

1) brief news items;

2) advertisements and announcements;

3) headlines;

Brief items: its function is to inform the reader. It states only facts without giving comments. The vocabulary used is neutral and common literary. Specific features are:

a) special political and economic terms;

b) non-term political vocabulary;

c) newspaper clichms;

d) abbreviations;

e) neologisms.

Headlines. The main function is to inform the reader briefly of what the news is to follow about. Syntactically headlines are very short sentences, interrogative sentences, nominative sentences, elliptical sentences, sentences with articles omitted, headlines including direct speech.

Advertisements and announcements. The function of advertisements and announcements is to inform the reader. There are two types of them: classified and non-classified. In classified the information is arranged according to the subject matter: births, marriages, deaths, business offers, personal etc. Types & forms of speech.

The most common and acceptable definition of the word is : a word is a language sign that expresses a concept by it's forms and meanings. By concept is meant an abstract or general idea of some phenomenon of objective reality including the subjective feelings and emotions of human beings. The forms of a word show it's relation to the other words in the sentence. The meaning of a word is the means by which the concept is materialized. The meaning will always direct the mind to the object or objects we think of. The forms of a word will direct the mind to the correlation between the words in a sentence.

The forms of a word are also said to have meanings. Therefore we distinguish between lexical meaning and grammatical meaning ( a word in the sentence ).

Varieties of English

The functioning of the literary language in various spheres of human activity and with different aims of communication has resulted in its differentiation. This differentiation is predetermined by two distinct factors: the actual situation in which the language is being used and the aim of communication.

The actual situation of the communication two varieties of language: the spoken (primary) and the written (secondary). The varying aims of the communication have caused the literary language to fall into a number of self sufficient systems or styles of language.

The spoken language is maintained in a form a dialogue, but the written - in the form of a monologue. The spoken language has a considerable advantage over the written, in that the human voice comes into play. This is the powerful means of modulating the utterance, as are all kinds of gestures, which together with the intonation, give additional information. Indeed the rise and fall of the voice, whether the utterance is shouted, whispered, drawled or expressed in some other tone of voice all have an effect on the melody of the utterance and consequently on it's general meaning.

The written language has to seek means to compensate for what it lacks. It has to produce an enlarged representation of the communication in order to be explicit enough.

In the long process of it's functioning the written language has acquired its own characteristic features emanating from the need to amplify the utterance, which is essential point in the written language.

The gap between the spoken & written varieties of language will always remain apparent due to the difference in circumstances in which the two are used. The spoken language cannot be detached from the user of it, the speaker, who is unable to view it from outside. The written language on the contrary, can be detached from the writer , enabling him to look upon his utterance objectively & giving him the opportunity to correct & improve what has been put on paper. That is why it is said , that the written language bears the greater volume of responsibility that its spoken counterpart. The peculiarities of both varieties can roughly be described as follows: the spoken variety differs form the written language phonetically, morphologically, lexically and syntactically. Thus, of morphological forms the spoken language commonly uses contracted forms as he'd, she'd ( she has, she is ); don't - doesn't; he - him; ain't - am not, is not - are not; them - these, those. Or violation of grammar rules, caused by a certain carelessness which accompanies the quick tempo of colloquial speech or an excited state of mind. Others are typical of territorial or social dialects.

e.g. “ You done what ? “ asked Mrs. Sunburry, for a moment forgetting her grammar.

The most striking difference between the spoken & written language is, in the vocabulary used. There are words & phrases typically colloquial on the one hand & typically bookish on the other.

The syntactical peculiarities of the spoken language are perhaps not so striking as the lexical ones, but more than any other features, they reveal the true nature of the spoken variety of language, that is the situational character of the communication. The first of them is ellipsis, that is , the omission of parts of the utterance easily supplied by the situation in which the communication takes place. These are not omission in fact , but the regular absence of parts unnecessary in lively conversation when there are two or more people speaking. Here are some absolutely normal and legitimate constructions which have missing elements in the spoken language, elements which are indispensable in the written language.

e.g. “Who you with ?” *( Who are you with ?)

“Ever go back to England ?”

The second feature is the tendency to use the direct word order in questions or omit the auxiliary verb, leaving it to the intonation to indicate the grammatical meaning of the sentence & also unfinished sentences.

e.g. “He knew Marley was dead ?”

There is a syntactical structure with a tautological subject which is also considered characteristic of colloquial English. It is the construction in which two subjects are used where one is sufficient reference. Usually they are noun & pronoun.

e.g. “He was a kind boy , Harry.”

Another syntactical feature of the written language is its use of all kinds of conjunctions, adverbial phrases, other connectives & complicated sentence- units.

e.g. moreover, furthermore, likewise , similarly, nevertheless, on the contrary, however, presently, eventually, in connection with, (which have a decidedly bookish flavour); despite the fact (=although), in the matter of (=about), a long period of time (= a long time), in the capacity of (= as), reach a decision (= decide).

All said above was the case with the prose writing.

With regard to poetry , the situation is somewhat different. Recent observation on the peculiarities of the language of modern English & American poetry have proved that it is mainly the breach of syntactical laws that hinders understanding to a degree that the message becomes undecodable.

Literary, neutral & colloquial vocabulary.

Special literary vocabulary.



Terms

Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and therefore with a series of other terms belonging to that particular branch of science. Terms are characterized by a tendency to be monosemantic . Terms are mostly and predominantly used in special works dealing with the notion of some branch of science. Therefore it may be said that they belong to the scientific style. But their use is not confined to this style . They may as well appear in other styles - in newspaper style, in publicistic style, in belle-lettres style and practically in other existing styles. But their function in this case changes. They no longer fulfill their basic function , that of bearing an exact reference to a given notion or concept. The function of terms, if encountered in other styles, is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make some referance to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions.

A term has a stylistic function when it is used to create the atmosphere or to characterize a person through his calling and his consequent mode of expression.

Sometimes terms are used in a satirical function.

e.g. “Green eyes, fair skin, pretty figure, famous frontal development”

(the girl's description)

The words “frontal”, “development” have a terminological aspect, i.e. they belong both to the common literary stock & to a special group of the literary vocabulary, to the science of anatomy. Bun being paired, their loose their common aspect & become purely terminological. The combination becomes an anatomical term signifying “breast”. But being preceded by the word “famous” it took the meaning : “excellent, capital ”, the whole expression becomes satirical.



Poetic & Highly Literary Words

Poetic words are used primarily in poetry. They may be likened to terms in more than one way. First of all they belong to a definite style of language & perform in it their direct function. If encountered in another style of speech, they assume a new function, mainly satirical, for the two notions, poetry & prose, have been opposed to each other from time immemorial.

Poetic language has special means of communication, i.e. rhythmical arrangement, some syntactical peculiarities & certain number of special words. The special poetic vocabulary has a marked tendency to detach itself from the common literary word stock & assume a special significance. Poetic words claim to be of higher rank. Poetic words & expressions were called upon to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry, a function which they even now claim to carry out. Poetic words in the English language do not present a homogeneous group : they include archaic words & forms.

It must be remembered though, that not all English poetry makes use of “poeticisms or poetical terms”, as they might be named. In the history English literature there were periods, as there were in many countries, which were characterized by protests against the use of such conventional symbols. The literary trends known as classicism & romanticism were particularly rich in fresh poetic terms.

Poetic words are not freely built in contrast to neutral, colloquial & common literary words, or terms. The commonest means is by compounding, the use of contractions instead of the full one.

Poetic words & set expressions make the utterance understandable only to a limited number of readers. It is mainly due to poeticisms that poetical language is sometimes called poetical jargon.

In modern English poetry there is a strong tendency to use words in strange combinations. It manifests itself in the coinage of new words & , most of all, in combining old & familiar words in a way that hinders understanding & forces the reader to stop & try to decipher the message so encoded.

e.g. “ and time yet for a hundred indecisions.”

“ he danced his did.”

“ a grief ago.”

Archaic Words

The word stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. Word change & new words spring up & replace the old ones. Some words stay in the language a very long time & do not lose their faculty of gaining new meanings & becoming richer & richer polysemantically. Other words live but a short time & like bubbles on the surface of water - their disappear leaving no trace of their existence.

Archaisms, i.e. words,

denoting historical phenomena which are no more in use ( such as “yeoman”, “vassal”). These are historical words.

used in poetry in the XVII- XIX cc.

in the course of language history outset by newer synonymic words or forms. These are called archaic words proper (archaic forms).

To the category of obsolescent words belong many French borrowings which have been kept in the literary language as a means of preserving the spirit of earlier periods.

The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English speaking community. These words are called obsolete.

The third group, which may be called archaic proper , are words which are no longer recognizable in modern English, words that were in use in Old English & which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they become unrecognizable.

The boarder line between the groups are not distinct. In fact they interpenetrate. It is very difficult to distinguish between obsolete & obsolescent words. But the difference is important when we come to deal with the stylistic aspect of an utterance in which the given word serves as certain stylistic purpose, i.e. they have separate functions.

Archaic words are primary & predominantly used in a creation of the historical background to historical novels. This, the main function of archaisms, finds different interpretation in different novels by different writers. As the matter of fact, the heroes of historical novels speak the language of the period the writer & reader live in, & the skill of the writer is required to colour the language with such obsolete or obsolescent elements as most naturally interweave with the texture of the modern literary language. These elements must not be archaic in the narrow sense. They must be recognizable to the native reader & not hinder his understanding of the communication.

Barbarisms and Foreign Words

In the vocabulary of the English language there is a considerable layer of words called barbarisms. These are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language.

These are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language. They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue. The great majority of these borrowed words now form part of the rank & life of the English vocabulary. There are some words, which retain their foreign appearance to a greater or lesser degree, these words are called barbarisms & like archaisms, also considered to be on the outskirts of the literary language.

Most of them have corresponding English synonyms:

e.g. chic = stylish; bon mot = a clever witty saying; ad infinitum = to infinity

It is very important for purely stylistic purposes to distinguish between barbarisms & foreign words proper. Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the English language. They are part & parcel of the English word stock, though they remain on the outskirts of the literary vocabulary. Foreign words, though used for certain stylistic purposes, do not belong to the English vocabulary. They are not registered by English dictionaries, except in a kind of addenda which gives the meanings of the foreign words most frequently used in literary English. Barbarisms are generally given in the body of the dictionary. In printed works foreign words & phrases are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value. Barbarisms on the contrary, are not made conspituous in the text unless they bear the special load of stylistic information & they are a historical category.

The function of the foreign words used in a context may be considered to provide local colour as a background to the narrative.

Barbarisms & foreign words are used in various styles of writing, but are most often to be found in the style of belles-lettres & the publicistic style.

Neologisms

A new word or a new meaning for an established word - neologism.

Every period in the development of a language produces an enormous number of new words or new meanings of established words. Most of them do not live long. They are not meant to live long. They are coined for use at the moment of speech. The given word or meaning holds only in the given context & is meant only to serve to occasion. Most of neologisms are terms. The layer of terminological neologisms has been rapidly growing since the start of technological revolution. The sphere of Internet alone gave birth to thousands of new terms , which have become international (e-mail, site, Internet Massage Protocol, provider, server, network). Recent discoveries in any scientific field demand new words to name new concepts & ideas ( neuron, atomic engineering). The first type of newly coined words, i.e. those which designate new-born concepts, may be named terminological neologisms.

The second type, i.e. words coined because their creators seek expressive utterance may be named stylistic neologisms.

Neologisms are mainly coined according to the productive models for word-building in the given language. Among new coinages of a literary bookish type must be mentioned a considerable layer of words appealing in the publicistic style, mainly in newspaper articles & magazines & also in the newspaper style - mostly in the newspaper headlines. Most of the borrowings of the 16-th ,17-th cc. were foreign borrowings from Latin, Greek & continental French. The words were introduced into The English language & used in the same sense & with almost the same pronunciation as in the language they were borrowed from, but most of them were finally “naturalized” (assimilazed) to the pronunciation of the language they appeared in.

Many new coinages disappear entirely from the language, leaving no mark of their even brief existence. Other literary neologisms leave traces in the vocabulary because they are fixed in the literature of their time. This is not case with the colloquial coinages. These are spontaneous & can not be fixed unless special care is taken by specialists to preserve them.

Most of the literary bookish coinages are build by means of affixation , word compounding & conversion. Semantic word building, that is giving an old word a new meaning , is rarely employed by writers who coin new words for journalistic purposes. It is so slow & imperceptible in its growth to produce any kind of sensational effect. conversion, derivation & change of meaning may be registered as means by which literary-bookish neologisms are formed. These three means of word-building are mostly used to coin new terms where new meanings are imposed on old words.



Special colloquial vocabulary

a) Slang

There is hardly any other term that is as ambiguous and obscure as the term slang. Slang seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day English.

Much has been said and written about it. This is probably due to the uncertainty of the concept itself. No one has yet given a more or less satisfactory definition of the term. Nor has it been specified by any linguist who deals with the problem of the English vocabulary. The distinctions between slang and other groups of unconventional English, though perhaps subtle and sometimes difficult to grasp, should nevertheless be subjected to a more detailed linguistic specification.

Webster`s “ New World Dictionary of the American Language" gives the following meanings of the term:

"1. originally, the specialized vocabulary and idioms of criminals, tramps, etc. the purpose of which was to disguise from outsiders the meaning of what was said; now usually called cant. 2. the specialized vocabulary and idioms of those in the same work, way of life, etc.; now usually called shoptalk, argot, jargon. 3. colloquial language that is outside of conventional or standard usage and consists of both coined words (blurb, whoopoee) and those with new or extended meanings (rubber¬neck, sap); slang develops from the attempt to find fresh and vigorous, colourful, pungent, or humorous expression, and generally either passes into disuse or comes to have a more formal status."

As is seen from these quotations slang is represented both as a spe¬cial vocabulary and as a special language. This is the first thing that causes confusion. If this is a certain lexical layer, then why should it be given the rank of language? If, on the other hand, slang is a certain language or a dialect or even a patois, then it should be characterized not only by its peculiar use of words but also by phonetic, morpholo¬gical and syntactical peculiarities.

The following stylistic layers of words are generally marked as slang.

Words which may be classed as thieves' cant, or the jargons of other social groups and professions, like dirt (='money'), dotty(= 'mad'), a barker (= 'a gun'), to dance (= 'to hang').

Colloquial words and phrases like for good, to have a hunch, a show (at the theatre) and the like. It is indeed sometimes impossible to distinguish between a colloquial word and one which we shall agree to call a jargonism or a professionalism, or one belonging to any other of the non-literary layers. Therefore such borderline words which have the transitional characteristics of two neighbouring groups, as colloquial and/or professional; colloquial or dialectal and the like. There is a general objection to the use of a term that can be applied indiscrim¬inately to any unit which cannot otherwise be characterized. Thus such words as chink ('money'), fishy ('suspicious'), hum ('humbug'), governor ('father') and many other words and phrases are in some dic¬tionaries given with two stylistic notations, coll. and/or sl.

3. Figurative words and phrases are not infrequently regarded as slang and included in special slang dictionaries, e. g. Scrooge (= 'a mean person'); shark ('a pickpocket', 'a swindler'); blackcoat (=clergyman').

4. Words derived by means of conversion, one of the most productive means of word-building in present day English, are also sometimes classed as slang, for example, the noun agent is considered neutral because it has no stylistic notation, whereas the verb to agent is included in one of the American dictionaries of slang. It is the same with such pairs as altar -- to altar, ancient (a) -- ancient (n).

5, .Abbreviations of the lab-type, for example, rep (reputation), cig (cigarette), ad (advertisement), as well as of the flu-type (influenza).

6. Set expressions which are generally used in colloquial speech and which are clearly colloquial, are also marked with the notation slang, e. g., to go in for, to cut off with a shilling, in a way, and many others.

7. Improprieties of a morphological and syntactical character, e. g. How come, I says, double negatives as I don't know nothing and others of this kind.

8. Any new coinage that has not gained recognition and therefore has not yet been received into standard English is easily branded as slang.

The term slang, which is widely used in English linguistic science, should be clearly specified if it is to be used as a term, i. e. it should refer to some definite notion and should be definable in expli¬cit, simple terms. It is suggested here that the term "slang" should be used for those forms of the English language which are either mispro¬nounced or distorted in some way phonetically, morphologically or lexically. The term "slang" should also be used to specify some elements which may be called over-colloquial. As for the other groups of words hitherto classified as slang, they should be specified according to the universally accepted classification of the vocabulary of a language.

b) Jargonisms

In the non-literary vocabulary of the English language there is a group of words that are called jargo nisms. Ja r gon is a recognized term for a group of words that exists in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new mean¬ings imposed on them. The traditional meaning of the words is immaterial, only the new, improvised meaning is of importance. Most of the jargonisms of any language, and of the English language too, are absolutely incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them. They may be defined as a code within a code, that is special meanings of words that are imposed on the recognized code -- the dictionary meaning of the words.

Thus the word grease means 'money'; loaf means 'head'; a tiger hunter is 'a gambler'; a lexer is 'a student preparing for a law course'.

Jargonisms are social in character. They are not regional. In Eng¬land and in the USA almost any social group of people has its own jargon. The following jargons are well known in the English language: the jargon of thieves and vagabonds, generally known as cant; the jargon of jazz people; the jargon of the army, known as military slang; the jargon of sportsmen and many other varieties.

For example: 1.ken=a house which harbours thieves; 2. spellken=a play-house or theatre;

3.to queer a flat= to puzzle a silly fellow; 4. to flash the muzzle (gun) on the high toby-spice=to rob on horse back

5. a lark=fun or sport of any kind; 6.a blowing=a girl.

Slang, contrary to jargon, needs no translation. It is not a secret code. It is easily understood by the English-speaking community and is only regarded as something not quite regular. It must also be remembered that both jargon and slang differ from ordinary language mainly in their vocabularies. There are hundreds of words, once jargonisms or slang, which have become legitimate members of the English literary language. Jargonisms have their definite place of abode and are therefore easily classified according to the social divisions of the given period.

There is a common jargon and special professional jargons. Common jargonisms have gradually lost their special quality, which is to pro¬mote secrecy and keep outsiders in the dark. In fact, there are no outsid¬ers where common jargon is concerned. It belongs to all social groups and is therefore easily understood by everybody. That is why it is so difficult to draw a hard and fast line between slang and jargon. When a jargonism becomes common, it has passed on to a higher step on the ladder of word groups and becomes slang or colloquial.

Here are some further examples of jargon:

Piou-Piou --'a French soldier, a private in the infantry'. Accord¬ing to Eric Partridge this word has already passed from military jargon to ordinary colloquial speech.

Hummen -- 'a false arrest' {American)

Dar-- {from damned average raiser) --'a persevering and assidu¬ous student'. (University jargon)

Matlo(w) -- 'a sailor' (from the French word 'matelot')

Man and wife -- 'a knife' (rhyming slang)

c) Professionalisms

Professionalism, as the term itself signifies, are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connect¬ed by common interests both at work and at home. They commonly designate some working process or implement of labour. Professional¬isms are correlated to terms. Terms, as has already been indicated, are coined to nominate new concepts that appear in the process of, and as a result of, technical progress and the development of science. Professional words name anew already-existing concepts, tools or instruments, and have the typical properties of a special code. The main feature of a professionalism is its technicality. Professional¬isms are special words in the non-literary layer of the English vocab¬ulary, whereas terms are a specialized group belonging to the litera¬ry layer of words. Terms, if they are connected with a field or branch of science, or technique well-known to ordinary people, are easily decoded and enter the neutral stratum of the vocabulary. Professional¬isms generally remain in circulation within a definite community, as they are linked to a common occupation and common social inter¬ests. The semantic structure of the term is usually transparent and is therefore easily understood. The semantic structure of a profession¬alism is often dimmed by the image on which the meaning of the professionalism is based, particularly when the features of the object in question reflect the process of the work, metaphorically or metonymically. Like terms, professionalisms do not allow any polysemy, they are monosemantic.

Here are some professionalisms used in different trades: tin-fish (= 'submarine'); block-buster (= 'a bomb especially designed to destroy blocks of big buildings'); piper (= 'a specialist who decorates pastry with the use of a cream-pipe'); a rnidder case (='a midwifery case')"; outer (=s 'a knockout blow').

Some professionalisms, however, like certain terms, become popu¬lar and gradually lose their professional flavour.

Professionalisms should not be mixed up with jargonisms. Like slang words, professionalisms do not aim the secrecy. They fulfill a socially useful function in communication, facilitating a quick and adequate grasp of the message.

d). Dialectal Words

This group of words is obviously opposed to the other groups of the non-literary English vocabulary and therefore its stylistic functions can be more or less clearly defined. Dialectal words are which in the process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is generally confined to a definite locality

Of quite a different nature are dialectal words which are easily recognized as corruptions of standard English words, although etymologically they may have sprung from the peculiarities of certain dialects. The following words may serve as examples: hinny from honey; tittie apparently from sister, being a childish corruption of the word; cutty meaning a 'testy or naughty girl or woman'.

Most of the examples so far quoted come from the Scottish and the northern dialect. This is explained by the fact that Scotland has struggled to retain the peculiarities of her language, claiming it to be independent. Therefore many of the words fixed in dictionaries as dialectal are of Scottish origin.

Dialectal words are only to be found in the style of emotive prose, very rarely in other styles. And even here their use is confined to the function of characterizing personalities thorough their speech. Perhaps it would not be a false supposition to suggest that if it were not for the use of the dialectal words in emotive prose they would have already disappeared entirely from the English language. The unifying tendency of the literary language is so strong that language elements used only in dialect are doomed to vanish except, perhaps those which, because of their vigour and beauty, have withstood the integrating power of the written language.

e) Vulgar Words

The term vulgarism, as used to single out a definite group of words of non-standard English, is rather misleading. Webster`s "New International Dictionary" defines vulgarism as "A vulgar phrase or expression, or one used only in colloquial, or, esp., in unrefined or low, speech." Then follows the explanation, "A vulgarism is a phrase or expression which is in common, but in good, use; the word does not necessarily connote coarseness."

We shall define vulgarisms as expletives or swear-words and obscene words and expressions. They have nothing to do with words in common use nor can they be classed as colloquialisms.

There are different degrees of vulgar words. Some of them, the ob¬scene ones should not even be fixed in common dictionaries. They are euphemistically called "four-letter" words. A lesser degree of vulga¬rity is presented by expletives, words like damn, bloody, son of a bitch, to hell, and others. These vulgarisms sometimes appear in a euphemistic spelling, uiz.only the initial letter is printed: d- - -(damn), b - - - (bloody)

The function of vulgarisms is almost the same as that of interjec¬tions, that is to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger, vexation and the like. They are not to be found in any style of speech except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the cha¬racters.

f.Colloquial Coinages

Colloquial coinages (nonce-words), unlike those of a literary-bookish character, are spontaneous and elusive. This proceeds from the very nature of the colloquial words as such. Not all of the colloquial nonce-words are fixed in dictionaries or even in writing and therefore most of them disappear from the language leaving no trace in it whatsoever.

Unlike literary-bookish coinages, nonce-words of a colloquial nature are not usually built by means of affixes but are based on certain semantic changes in words that are almost imperceptible to the linguistic observer until the word finds its way into print.

New literary coinages will always bear the brand of individual creation and will therefore have more or less precise semantic boundaries. The meaning of literary coinages can easily be grasped by the reader because of the use of the productive means of word-building, and also from the context, of course. E.g. presently (means in the present moment).



Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices

Instrumentation is the art of selecting and combining sounds in order to make utterances expressive and melodic. Instrumentation unites three basic stylistic devices: onomatopoeia, alliteration and assonance.

1. Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds, which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature, people, & by animals.

There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct & indirect.

Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds ( ding-dong, buzz, bang, cuckoo, mew, ping-pong, roar). Onomatopoetic words can be used in a transferred meaning.

Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometimes called “echo-writing”.

e.g. “And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain”. (E.A.Poe)

where the repetition of the sound [s] actually produces the sound of the rustling curtain.

Indirect onomatopoeia, unlike alliteration, demands some mention of what makes the sound, as rustling of curtains in the line above. Indirect onomatopoeia is sometimes very effectively used by repeating words which themselves are not onomatopoetic, as in Poe's poem “The Bells” where the words tinkle & bells are distributed in the following manner:

e.g. “Silver bells ... how they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle”

& further

“To the tintibulation that so musically wells

From the bells, bells, bells, bells,

bells, bells, bells -

From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells.”

Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words :

e.g. “The possessive instinct never stands still. Through florescence and feud, frosts and fires it follows the laws of progression.”

“Deep into the darkness peering , long I stood there wondering , fearing,

Doubting dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before.”

(E. A. Poe )

Alliteration, like most phonetic expressive means, doesn't bear any lexical or other meaning unless we agree that a sound meaning exists as such. But even so we may not be able to specify clearly the character of this meaning, & the term will merely suggest that a certain amount of information is contained in the repetition of sounds, as in the case with the repetition of sounds, as is the case with the repetition of lexical units.

Alliteration in the English language is deeply rooted in the traditions of English folklore, which are exceptionally stable & alliteration as a structural device of Old English poems & songs has shown remarkable continuity. It is frequently used as well-tested means not only in verse but in emotive prose, in newspaper headlines, in the titles of books, in proverbs and sayings as in:

e.g. Tit for tat; blind as a bat, betwixt and between; It is neck or nothing; to rob Peter to pay Paul:

or in the titles of books:

“Sense and Sensibility”, “ Pride and Prejudice” (J. Austin), “The School for Scandal” ( Sheridan); “A Book of Phrase and Fable ” ( Brewer).

Assonance is a stylistically motivated repetition of stressed vowels. The repeated sounds stand close together to create a euphonious effect and rhyme: The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain. We love to spoon beneath the moon in June.

The main concepts of versification are rhyme and rhythm.

Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are usually placed at the end of corresponding lines. Identity & particularly similarity of sound combinations may be relative. We distinguish between full rhymes & incomplete rhymes .

The full rhymes presupposes identity of the vowel sound & the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable (might - right, needless - heedless). When there is the identity of the stressed syllable, including the initial consonant of the second syllable ( in polysyllabic words), we have exact or identical rhymes.

Incomplete rhymes present a greater variety. They can be divided into two main groups: vowel rhymes & consonant rhymes. In vowel-rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different as in flesh - fresh - press. Consonant rhymes, on the contrary, show concordance in consonants and disparity in vowels, as in worth - forth, tale - tool - Treble - trouble, flung - long.

Modification in rhyming sometimes go so far as to make one word; or two or even three words rhyme with the corresponding two or three words. Such rhymes are called compound or broken .

Compound rhyme may be set against what is called eye-rhyme, where the letters and not the sound are identical, as in love - prove, flood - brood, have - grave. It follows therefore that whereas compound rhyme is perceived in reading aloud, eye-rhyme can only be perceived in the written verse.

According to the way the rhymes arranged within the stanza, certain models have crystallized, for instance:

1. couplets - when the last words of two successive lines are rhyme. This is commonly marked aa.

2. triple rhymes -- aaa

3.cross rhymes - abab

framing or ring rhymes - abba

There is still another variety of rhyme which is called internal rhyme.

The rhyming words are placed not at the end of the lines, but within the line, as in:

e.g. “ I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.”

“ Once upon a midnight dreary while I pondered weak and weary.”

Rhythm exists in all spheres of human activity and assumes multifarious forms. It is a mighty weapon in stirring up emotions whatever its nature or origin, whether it is musical, mechanical, or symmetrical as in architecture. Rhythm can be perceived only provided that there is some kind of experience in catching the opposite elements or features in their correlation & experience in catching the regularity of alternating patterns. Rhythm is primarily a periodicity, which requires specification as to the type of periodicity.

Rhythm reveals itself most conspicuously in music, dance and verse.

It must be made clear that material or accented rhythm, which is an internal and indispensable property of verse, is incidental in prose, which in its very essence is non-rhythmical. the most observable rhythmical patterns in prose are based on the use of certain stylistic syntactical devices ( enumeration, repetition, parallel construction & chaismus.)

Graphic expressive means

Basic notions of graphic expressive means are punctuation, orthography or spelling, text segmentation and type. Punctuation is used in writing to show the stress, rhythm and tone of the spoken word. There are such common marks of punctuation: the full stop [ .], the comma [,], the colon [:], the semicolon [;], brackets [()], dash [ - ], hyphen [ - ], the exclamation mark [!], the oblique stroke [/], the interrogative (question mark) [?], inverted commas (quotation marks) [“”], suspension marks […], the apostrophe [`]. Z

1. The relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings may be maintained along different lines: on the principle of affinity, on that of proximity, or symbol -- referent relations, or on opposition. Thus the stylistic device based on the first principle is metaphor, on the second, metonymy and on the third - irony.

Metaphor

A metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts.

The more obvious similarity, the less need there is for deciphering words in the context. Thus in

"Dear Nature is the kindest Mother still." (Byron, "Childe Harold")

no explanatory words are used. Nature is likened to a Mother in her attitude to man. The action of nursing is implied but not directly stated.

In the following example, however, an explanation is given:

"The indicators became enemies if they lagged behind his wish:

dear and reliable friends when they showed what he wanted."

(Mitchel Wilson, "Live with Lightning")

The explanatory words 'if they...', 'when they...' help the reader to decipher the true meaning of the metaphor.

Metaphor can be embodied in all the meaningful parts of speech, in nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and sometimes even in the auxiliary parts of speech, as in prepositions.

In "The human tide is rolling westward." (Dickens, "Dombey and Son"), the metaphor is embodied in the adjective.

"In the slanting beams that streamed through the open window, the dust danced and was golden." (O. Wilde, "The Picture of Dorian Gray") Here the metaphors lie in the verbs.

"The leaves fell sorrowfully." Here it is the adverb that is a metaphor.

The metaphor is a well-known semantic way of building new mean-ln§s and new words. "It is due to the metaphor" according to the rernark of Quintilian, "that each thing seems to have its name in language." Even language has been figuratively defined as a dictionary of Iaded metaphors.

Metaphors, like all stylistic devices can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors which are absolutely unexpected, i. e., are quite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors. Those which are commonly used in speech and therefore are sometimes even fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite metaphors, or dead metaphors. Their predictability therefore is apparent. Genuine metaphors are regarded as belonging to language-in-action, i. e., speech metaphors; trite metaphors belong to the language-as-a-system, i. e. language proper, and are usually fixed in dictionaries as units of the language.

V. V. Vinogradov states:

"...a metaphor, if it is not a cliche, is an act of establishing an individual world outlook, it is an act of subjective isolation... Therefore a word metaphor is narrow, subjectively enclosed, ...it imposes on the reader a subjective view of the object or phenomenon and its semantic ties."

The examples given above may serve as illustrations of genuine metaphors. Here are some examples of metaphors that are considered trite. They are well rubbed into the language: a ray ofhope, floods of tears, a storm of indignation, a flight of fancy, a gleamof mirth, a shadow of a smile and the like.

The interaction of the logical dictionary meaning and the logical contextual meaning assumes different forms. Sometimes this interaction is perceived as a deliberate interplay of the two meanings. In this case each of the meanings preserves its relative independence. Sometimes, however, the metaphoric use of a word begins to affect the source meaning, i. e. the meaning from which the metaphor is derived, with the result that the target meaning, that is the metaphor itself, takes the upper hand and may even oust the source meaning. In this case we speak of dead metaphors.

Thus in such words as to grasp (= 'to understand'), to get { = 'to understand'), to see (='to understand'), the meaning in brackets has become a derivative logical meaning and is fixed by all existing dictionaries as such. The metaphorical origin of these meanings can hardly be perceived. There is no interplay of the two meanings. Consequently, there is no stylistic device, no metaphor.

In such words as to melt (away) as in "these misgivings gradually melted away," we can still recognize remnants of the original meaning and in spile of the fact that the meaning to vanish, to disappear is already fixed in dictionaries as one of the derivative meanings, the primary meaning still makes itself felt.

Trite metaphors are sometimes injected with new vigour, i. e. their primary meaning is re-established alongside the new (derivative) meaning. This is done by supplying the central image created by the metaphor with additional words bearing some reference to the main word.

We may call the principal metaphor the central image of the sustained metaphor and the other words which bear reference to the central image -- contributory images. Thus in the example given the word cup (of satisfaction) being a trite metaphor is revived by the following contributory images: full, drop, contents, sprinkle. It is interesting to note that both the central image (the cup) and the contributory words are used in two senses simultaneously: direct and indirect. The second plane of utterance is maintained by the key word -- satisfaction. It is this word that helps us to decipher the idea behind the sustained metaphor.

Sometimes however the central image is not given, but the string of words all bearing upon some implied central point of reference are so associated with each other that the reader is bound to create the required image in his mind. Let us take the following sentence from Shakespeare:

"I have no spur to prick the sides of my intent." The words spur, to prick, the sides in their interrelation will inevitably create the image of a steed.

The same is to be seen in the following lines from Shelley's "Cloud": "In a cavern under is fettered the thunder, It struggles and howls at fits."

Here the central image -- that of a captive beast -- is suggested by the contributory images -- fettered, struggles and howls..

The metaphor is one of the most powerful means of creating images. This is its main function. Genuine metaphors are mostly to be found in poetry and emotive prose. Trite metaphors are generally used as expressive means in newspaper articles, in oratorical style and even in scientific language. The use of trite metaphors should not be regarded as a drawback of style. They help the writer to enliven his work and even make the meaning more concrete.