Negation, truth and falsity

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Ivan Franko National University of Lviv

Negation, truth and falsity

Bekhta, I.A.

Tatarovska O.V.

Abstract

This article explores negation as a functional-semantic category and a pragmatic universal, examining its elements in both the language system and discourse, particularly negative statements. The study observes that despite structural and semantic differences, the concept of negation is applied uniformly. The analysis delves into linguistic means and their interaction within utterances, establishing restrictions influencing the choice of negation expression in various discourses. The complexity of negation is emphasized as a significant factor influencing language structure at all levels. The research aims to clarify the relationship between linguistic means of negation and their interaction withstructural components within utterances. Researchers have shown interest in intra-systemic parameters of the negation category, considering it broader than its logical conceptualization. Modern linguists strive to analyze negation from logical-semantic perspectives, accounting for its pragma-communicative properties in discourse modes. The importance of logical negation lies in its role as the foundation for communicative- grammatical aspects of negation. The study acknowledges that while logical and grammatical negation share similarities, linguistic meanings inherent in each language contribute to differences between them. The article highlights the extensive study of negation in linguistics, with a focus on various linguistic phenomena and their expressions. The subsequent sections aim to investigate multiple negation and its means of expression in modern English language corpus and discourse. Negation has been a subject of study across disciplines, drawing attention from logicians, philosophers, linguists, and psychologists. As a pragmatic universal, it manifests differently in languages, making it an interdisciplinary syntactic and morphosyntactic phenomenon. The article reviews historical analyses and emphasizes the significance of negation as a key human concept, shaping human expression in various fields of knowledge. Theoretical insights into English negation have been diverse, incorporating perspectives from linguistics, logic, pragmatics, and text theory. Various aspects, such as negative types, polarity elements, intensification, and scope, have been explored. The pragma-discourse approach is highlighted as a foundation for analyzing linguistic phenomena in context, providing a theoretical base for understanding different types of negation. The study adopts a pragmatic approach, employing methods from linguistic pragmatics, stylistics, text linguistics, cognitive linguistics, corpus linguistics, and discourse studies. The pragma-discourse approach is central, considering the communicative context to classify and systematize language material. Methods include deployment, elimination, paraphrasing, and restoration of nuclear structure, along with component analysis and semantic selection. The study reveals functional equality between explicit and implicit means of negation within discourse layers, establishing commonality across language levels in transmitting negative information. The analysis considers the dynamic nature of texts and contextual functioning, distinguishing various forms and speech methods of negation. Functional types of negation are explored, demonstrating their implementation through explicit and implicit linguistic means. The article concludes by reflecting on the historical significance of negation studies, emphasizing its evolving perspectives. The pragmatic universal nature of negation is reiterated, portraying it as a broad-based concept reflecting the fundamental properties of the objective world. The research opens avenues for further exploration, suggesting that the understanding of negation, especially multiple negation, may evolve in unforeseen ways, driven by the inherent logic of the language..

Keywords: negation, truth, falsity, linguistic analysis, pragmatic universal.

Бехта І.А. Татаровська О.В.

Заперечення, правда та хибність

Анотація

linguistic negation functional-semantic utterance

Ця стаття розглядає заперечення як функціонально-семантичну категорію та прагматичну універсалію, досліджуючи його елементи як у мовній системі, так і в дискурсі, зокрема негативні твердження. Дослідження зазначає, що, незважаючи на структурні та семантичні відмінності, поняття заперечення використовується однаково. Аналіз заглиблюється в мовні засоби та їхню взаємодію у висловлюваннях, встановлюючи обмеження, що впливають на вибір вираження заперечення в різних дискурсах. Підкреслюється складність заперечення як суттєвий фактор, що впливає на структуру мови на всіх рівнях. Метою дослідження є з'ясування співвідношення мовних засобів заперечення та їх взаємодії зі структурними компонентами висловлювань. Дослідники виявляють інтерес до внутрішньосистемних параметрів категорії заперечення, вважаючи її ширшою за її логічну концептуалізацію. Сучасні лінгвісти прагнуть аналізувати заперечення з логіко-семантичних позицій, враховуючи його прагма-комунікативні властивості в межах дискурсу. Важливість логічного заперечення полягає в його ролі як основи для комунікативно-граматичних аспектів заперечення. Дослідження визнає, що хоча логічне та граматичне заперечення мають подібність, лінгвістичні значення, властиві кожній мові, сприяють відмінностям між ними. Стаття висвітлює широке дослідження заперечення в лінгвістиці, зосереджуючись на різних мовних явищах та їх вираженні. Наступні розділи спрямовані на дослідження множинного заперечення та засобів його вираження в сучасному англійському мовному корпусі та дискурсі. Заперечення було предметом вивчення різних дисциплін, привертаючи увагу логіків, філософів, лінгвістів і психологів. Як прагматична універсалія, вона по-різному виявляється в мовах, що робить її міждисциплінарним синтаксичним і морфосинтаксичним явищем. У статті розглядається історичний аналіз і наголошується на значенні заперечення як ключового людського поняття, що формує людське самовираження в різних галузях знання. Теоретичні погляди на англійське заперечення були різноманітними, включаючи погляди з лінгвістики, логіки, прагматики та теорії тексту. Були досліджені різні аспекти, такі як типи заперечення, елементи полярності, інтенсифікація та обсяг. Прагматично-дискурсивний підхід виділено як основу для аналізу мовних явищ у контексті, забезпечуючи теоретичну базу для розуміння різних типів заперечення. Дослідження приймає прагматичний підхід, використовуючи методи лінгвістичної прагматики, стилістики, лінгвістики тексту, когнітивної лінгвістики, корпусної лінгвістики та вивчення дискурсу. Прагматично-дискурсний підхід є центральним, враховуючи комунікативний контекст для класифікації та систематизації мовного матеріалу. Методи включають розгортання, елімінацію, перефразування та відновлення ядерної структури разом із аналізом компонентів і семантичним відбором. Дослідження виявляє функціональну рівність між експліцитними та імпліцитними засобами заперечення в межах дискурсних шарів, встановлюючи спільність на мовних рівнях у передачі заперечної інформації. Аналіз враховує динамічну природу текстів і контекстуальне функціонування, виокремлюючи різні форми та мовленнєві способи заперечення. Досліджуються функціональні типи заперечення, демонструється їх реалізація за допомогою експліцитних та імпліцитних мовних засобів. Стаття завершується роздумами про історичне значення досліджень заперечення, наголошуючи на їх перспективах розвитку. Прагматична універсальна природа заперечення повторюється, зображуючи його як широку концепцію, що відображає фундаментальні властивості об'єктивного світу. Дослідження відкриває шляхи для подальших досліджень, припускаючи, що розуміння заперечення, особливо множинного заперечення, може розвиватися непередбаченими шляхами, що керується внутрішньою логікою мови.

Ключові слова: заперечення, правда, хибність, лінгвістичний аналіз, прагматична універсалія.

Introduction

In this article, negation is considered as one of the functional-semantic categories, a pragmatic universal, the elements of which are represented in the corpus (language system) and in the discourse (speech units) - negative statements. We use the concept of negation in the same way for statements that differ in structure and semantics, and therefore it seems that there are no significant semantic differences between them. However, the variety of linguistic means and ways of conveying ne-gation prompts us to clarify the relationship between them and how units of negative semantics interact with structural components within the utterance. Therefore, it is logical to establish restrictions that affect the choice of the method of linguistic expression of negation in various discourses. Negation is one of the central key concepts used in various fields of knowledge: philosophy, formal and mathematical logic, linguistics. The essence of logical negation, which is considered as a member of the opposition of negation - affirmation, cannot be understood without referring to the facts of true reality. Negation and affirmation are understood as two mutually exclusive and interpenetrating opposites, the dialectic unity of which is also manifested in language, while grammatical negation can also interact with other linguistic phenomena. Negation is a complex phenomenon, far from being a peripheral phenomenon, but an important factor that limits and modifies, and the influence of which to a certain extent takes place at all levels of the language structure. Attempts by scientists to reveal the intrasystemic parameters of the category of negation are probably due to the results of research into the phenomenon of negation, which proved that the scope of the meaning of negation as a category of sign is wider than negation as a category considered in logic at the conceptual level. Therefore, the aspirations of modern linguists to approach the analysis of the phenomenon of negation from logical-semantic positions and outline the ways of analyzing negation, taking into account its pragma-communicative properties in the pragma-discourse mode of being, became clear. It is clear that the study of logical negation is extremely important for linguists, because ultimately it is the basis for the communicative-grammatical character of negation. Logical formulas help to reveal the core of the linguistic phenomenon and find content invariants necessary for the transformation of statements. On the other hand, we cannot forget that the concept of negation, like many other concepts, came to logic from linguistics. The concept of negation in the logic of predicates and the operation of negation in the logic of statements reveals a dependence on the linguistic phenomenon of negation. Negation as a linguistic phenomenon cannot be completely reduced to logical negation. The differences between logical and grammatical negation are well consistent with the doctrine of linguistic meanings inherent in each language and constitute its identity. That is why each language is characterized by its own notions, which have a certain meaning. However, this content does not coincide with the content of logical categories in all main features. The phenomenon of negation received a detailed study in domestic and foreign linguistics at various stages of the development of linguistic science, but some of its aspects remained outside the attention of modern linguistics. Therefore, in the subsequent sections of the investigation, we aim to investigate the plurality and multifacetedness of multiple negation and the means of its expression in the corpus and discourse of the modern English language.

Studies of negation have been the focus of logicians, philosophers, linguists, and psychologists for centuries. This is a pragmatic universal, which is reflected in languages, albeit by different means, a syntactic and morphosyntactic phenomenon that is studied interdisciplinary. Due to its multifacetedness and multifunctionality, negation belongs to such language categories that are always in the field of view of scientific circles in the humanitarian sphere of knowledge. Despite the fact that a thorough analysis of negation began within the framework of formal logic, later this pragmatic universal became one of the fundamentalitems in various areas of scientific knowledge. It (negation) is also one of the most basic human concepts (meanings) and its presence is one of the criteria that reveals human nature and its expression in the humanitarian sphere of knowledge. That is, the ability to negate is a natural, and hence a natural phenomenon. The traditional view of negation as a logical operator that changes the truth of a judgment determined its status as a semantic concept in the majority of critical literature in this field. Research in the field of pragmatics and related disciplines, however, positions negation as an element that determines the creation of its exceptionally discourse-pragmatic functions. A negative statement can be part of any functional or pragmatic classification just like affirmative statements, as long as their different properties are taken into account. However, most of the work on negation in this context has a semantic focus, and the examples are typically isolated sentences. So far, we have recorded little information about the discourse and pragmatic properties of negation in context. This is where we see the relevance of this knowledge. Fundamental studies in this area are the works of T. Givon (1993), who develops the foundations of negation, based on the idea of negation as a propositional modality and on the cognitive properties of negative states and events, and H. Totti (1991), who conducts a detailed computer study of negation variants in English speech and writing. In this field of knowledge, there are sections of grammar, or broader studies, to the functions of negation, as well as the analysis of aspects of its use. Interest in the problems of syntactic semantics, pragmatics and text theory has recently also become an incentive for further development of the basics of the pragma-discourse approach to the analysis of linguistic phenomena, which is the newest theoretical base, a complete theory of various types of negation can be built. Therefore, the latest linguistic theory of negation in corpus and discourse needs its interpretation through syntax, semantics, pragmatics and context.

Theoretical background

Negation in English has been analyzed in recent decades from a wide variety of perspectives and approaches (Horn 1989, 2010; Tottie 1991; Haegeman 1995; Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Tottie 1982, 1985, 1991; Anderwald 2002, 2005; Mazzon 2004 and Iyeiri 2005). Specific areas of focus included, among others, negative types, elements of negative polarity, negative enhancement, negative intensification, negation with modal verbs, scope of negation, and the pragmatics and expression of negation in various genres and varieties Therefore, against the background of the above, this article is an attempt to outline the basics of the systematic study of negation as a pragmatic universal, its theory, propose theoretical postulates, trace its discourse organization and functional potential. Such remarks are debatable and conditioned by the complexity of the selected issues. One of the linguistic phenomena that is universal in the usual sense is negation. Its essence lies in the ability to refuse, to deny, to tell a lie, to disagree, to say something ironically, to distinguish truth from falsehood. All these qualities are inherent in a person. English linguist Gabriella Mazon comments on the existence of the topic of negation and its thorough studies in the linguistics of the English language. In a word, negation is a complex phenomenon in language, however, it would be insufficient to refer only to grammatical theory. Linguistic and paralinguistic methods of describing this phenomenon are covered in the proposed work on the study of negation. As a part of culture, language has many functions, one of which is communication, which requires the ability to properly express views, ideas, and objections. The Swedish statesman, Count Axel Gustafsson Oxenstierna (1583-1654) said for a reason: "It is not so much the denial or refusal that can offend us as the manner of their expression". The phenomenon of negation is essential to the study of any language. This field of study is characterized by complexity and at the same time universality, connected with all grammatical phenomena, the entire grammatical system. Many descriptive, theoretical studies have focused on the complex nature of the "negative" statement. Many scientists, taking into account the linguistic and non-linguistic factors that underlie negation, claim that it is connected not only with linguistics, but also with other disciplines: philosophy, logic, psychology and mathematics. Otto Jespersen was the first to publish a work entitled "Negation in English and Other Languages" in 1917. The English linguist L.R. Horn believes that "the process of studying negation contributed to the formation of important linguistic studies of such thinkers as: Aristotle, A. Bergson, L. Wittgenstein, B. Russell. A negation is the opposite of something actual, positive, or affirmative (Horn, 1989, p. 23). According to the basic structures of the language, negation laid its foundations in the early period of modern English and has remained largely unchanged for the past three centuries. In Old English, negation was conveyed using the particle "ne", which was added to any word. In the Middle English period, this mode of negation was auxiliary. Later, words or phrases nought/nat were added to the particle "ne". Initially, they were equivalent to the pronoun (nothing), but over time they acquired the function of a negative participle (not). Otto Jespersen notes that the disappearance of the particle "ne" and the use of (not) appeared in the 15th century. The category of negation occupies a special place among numerous language categories, as it most vividly and most accurately expresses the category of logic by its means, indicates its relationship between language, thinking and objective reality. Utterances that contain information with negative semantics are quite common in all functional styles of speech. The speaker (the one who writes) uses them not only when he denies something or tries to give an emotionally and expressively colored negative answer to a question posed to him, but also when he asserts or proves something, simply expresses his opinion or characterizes, gives assessment of objective reality, formulates certain scientific rules. The high frequency of negation in its various linguistic expressions explains the extraordinary interest of linguists in studying this phenomenon.

Methods

The theoretical and methodological basis of the work is the basic provisions of modern linguistic pragmatics, linguistic, literary and discourse stylistics, text linguistics, cognitive linguistics, corpus linguistics, and discourse studies. The pragma-discourse approach, which covers the palette of methods and linguistic techniques for working out the facts of the functional effectiveness of negation in the corpus and discourse, is the leading one in research. The basis of this approach is the communicative context through which language material is classified and systematized. The method of deployment, elimination, paraphrasing and restoration of the nuclear structure served to establish grounds for intensification and determination of preferences for the use of one or another type of negation with reinforcement and multiple negation. To solve some individual issues, the method of component analysis, reduced to dictionary definitions, and, if necessary, the method of semantic selection (in order to identify the textual specificity of the mentioned types of negation) were also used. In a word, negation as a conceptual and linguistic category has two projections: into the language system, where its manifestation determines the formation of appropriate word forms, words, free and stable word combinations and syntactic constructions, and into the text/discourse. In the English language, means belonging to different levels of the language system are used to objectify the conceptual category of negation. Such a palette of correlations between conceptual categories and the means of their verbalization reflects, on the one hand, the creative nature of the perception and awareness of human-signified phenomena and objects of reality and the relations and connections between them, and on the other hand, the universal nature of the category itself.

Results and discussion

From the point of view of philosophical teachings, negation is the transformation of one thing into another, an essential and necessary moment of development, which is accompanied not only by the rejection of the first thing, but also by the retention of all its positive qualities. The similarity between philosophical and logical negation is that in both cases we observe the transition of a certain concept into its opposite. In logic, a positive statement turns into a negative one or vice versa. However, there are certain contradictions between philosophical and logical negation. For philosophical negation, in contrast to formal-logical negation, development, movement from lower forms to higher ones while preserving the positive is characteristic. In formal logic, a negation is a logical operation, as a result of which, instead of the statement (proposition) A, we get the statement (proposition) not A, or instead of the statement not A, we get the statement A. The new statement obtained in this way is negation of the original statement. Despite various understandings of the term "negation" in philosophy and formal logic, defining the essence of logical negation is a philosophical problem. One of the fundamental issues of formal logic is the question about the nature of negative statements, about the interaction between the content of a negative statement and the surrounding reality. Logical negation is directly related to the philosophical categories of singular, personal, and universal. Thus, for Hegel, in a negative statement, the subject does not come under the influence of negation. In other words, it maintains interconnectedness and gravitates toward the common. Thus, in a negative judgment, not a general action, object, sign is denied, but a specific action, a specific sign.

Philosophy and negation. Philosophy also considers the role of negative judgments in the process of cognition. In a true negative judgment, as well as in a true affirmative one, the concrete historical experience of mankind is fixed, and the successes of scientific knowledge are registered. Everything that has been said is also related to a type of formal logic - mathematical (symbolic) logic. Negation in mathematical (symbolic) logic has nothing to do with negation in language. Such an idea would be wrong. Mathematical logic also works with negative statements. The analysis of such concepts is based on the study of certain language forms, since through the structure of language forms one can penetrate into the structure of thought forms.

Affirmation and Negation. The question of negation is extremely important for the science of language. At the current stage of the development of human thought, it is hardly possible to deny the connection between logical and linguistic categories. However, the fact is that negation is precisely such a category, where the unity of thinking and language is clearly revealed. The category of negation exists in all languages, its origins go back to ancient times. In the oldest written records of languages of different families, the categories of subject and object, subject and predicate, negation and affirmation appear equal, have their own form and meaning. Affirmation is the most universal conceptual category in all languages. Negation, along with affirmation, belongs to the categories available at all stages of language development in the form of a system of appropriate exponents of negative meaning. Negation in the broadest sense is precisely a linguistic category. It is expressed by the most diverse linguistic and non-linguistic means. Attempts to define linguistic negation as a universal semantic category, the basis of which is formed by the meaning of the opposite, are understandable and legitimate. The logico-semantic approach makes it possible to justify the universality of the category of negation, the core of which is a formal-logical negation, the meaning of which can be undeniably reduced to the formulation of what is false. We mainly pay attention to the correlation of negation in logic and grammar. The specificity of the linguistic category of negation lies in the fact that it has an extensive system of means of expression. We involve formal logic in the analysis. The relative perfection of logical structures makes it possible to study them thanks to the analysis of the corresponding linguistic forms. The similarity of formal logic and grammar lies in the fact that the form is of primary importance, relatively independently of the content. At the same time, the language system, having relative independence, is characterized, like any other system, by the ability for self-development. This circumstance leads to the fact that the logical category of negation and its linguistic expression of negation together with its linguistic means of expression are not always in absolute agreement with each other, although linguistic and logical negation must somehow be expressed by specific linguistic means. Before turning to the relationship between logical and grammatical negation, it is necessary to determine the relationship of such key concepts as assertion and negation, negation and modality, true meaning and judgment, judgment and assumption.

Falsity and negation. Since the time of Aristotle, proposition has been defined as the basic form of thought in which something is affirmed or denied. However, such a definition does not contribute to the distinction between proposition and concept (the concept is also one of the main forms of thought), since propositions are also positive and negative. In our time, other essential signs of proposition are also indicated: the relationship between two concepts, the direct connection between the object and certainty, the meaning of truth and falsity. Aristotle also pointed out that "not every thing contains a judgment, but only that which contains truth or falsity..." (Radice & Davies, 1997, p. 110). Most logicians today consider the true value of a judgment to be its main feature. We understand truth as a valid reflection in the content of a judgment of true reality, and falsity as a contradiction between the content and objective reality. Let us turn to the very authoritative opinion of Otto Jespersen: "I doubt that the concept of "opposition" is more primitive than the usual understanding of negation in such simple sentences as He does not sleep" (Jespersen, 1917, p. 64). The scientist explains the emergence of negation in English and French through the paralingual factor: "The starting point here, as everywhere, is ne, which, in my opinion (along with its variant me), was originally an exclamation of disgust; it was formed, mainly, by the muscles of the face, by the contraction of the muscles of the nose" (Jespersen, 1917, p. 72). So, according to Otto Jespersen, the origin and, accordingly, the essence of negation is determined not by objective, but by subjective factors (the feeling of "resistance", "disgust", etc.). In the negation, there is an undoubted volitional moment of elimination of connections, the negation mood of the speaker. Therefore, the logical category of negation reflects the absence of a sign (in the broadest sense of the word), the absence of an object and phenomenon, the presence of which would be possible under certain conditions at one time or another. In a word, negation is one of the central, key concepts used in various fields of knowledge: philosophy, formal and mathematical logic, linguistics. The essence of a logical negation, which is considered as a member of the opposition of affirmation ^ negation, cannot be understood without relying on the factors of reality. Affirmation and negation are two mutually exclusive and interpenetrating opposites, the dialectical unity of which is also manifested in language.

Conclusions and perspectives

The history of the study of the negation category dates back more than one millennium. Studies of this category aroused the interest of ancient Indian and ancient Greek philosophers in the first millennium BC, they are still relevant today. The number of scientific investigations dedicated to the category of negation is growing, only the angle of view of the problem and the component of the analysis of the consideration are changing in various modes. In particular, we define the linguistic category of negation as a pragmatic universal, which, re-producing moments of the objective world, introduces different (general, partial, verbal) negative information with the help of different levels of explicit and implicit language means and context. The amount of information of negation semantics, and accordingly the functional type of negation, which can be general, partial, verbal, is established on the basis of extralingual factors and paralinguistic data, verbally manifested or implicitly expressed in one context or another. The relationship between the functional types of negation and the means of their implementation cover all layers in the language system, as well as the level of the text, and, therefore, provide opportunities for distinguishing parallel system forms and speech methods of negation that function identically in a continuous discourse stream, and specifically in the narrative of the text. As a result of the study of the process of implementation of systemic means of negation in the text, functional equality between explicit and implicit means of negation within the constituents of each discourse layer is established. The approach to the text from dynamic positions, as well as consideration of the context of functioning as an object of research, allowed not only to find the actual textual ways of formation negations, but also to establish the possibility of realizing the information of negative semantics of a general, private and verbal nature. Exceptions are only the constituents of the morphological and syntactic levels. Due to the high degree of grammaticalization and specific negative semantics, they do not show the ability to penetrate into the content structure of individual referents, negatively characterize only the relationship between them within the utterance, thus ensuring the transmission of negative information of only general and private nature. Implicit negation usually shows the ability to convey information of a different (latent) nature. They carry additional lexical data, expressive-emotional, modal shades, which continuously deepen and multiply with the increasing complexity of each language level, reaching its climax in the texture of the text. Undoubtedly, multiple negation, as well as negation in general, cannot be explained by ordinary logic. The phenomenon of multiple negation is extremely diverse in its richness of expression of forms and complexity of interpretation. A multiple negation is not only an ordinary combination of several multi-negative items within one statement. This is a complex paradigm that includes the concepts of the scope of negation, negative polarity, negative agreement, etc., and therefore there is no unambiguous interpretation of it. According to a famous American researcher D. Burchfield, it is absolutely impossible to predict the ways of language development, because language is an ambiguous phenomenon that exists outside the boundaries of logic and rationality. Language has its own logic, which dictates the development of language processes and categories due to certain deviations that later become the norm. The phenomenon of the "Jespersen cycle", namely the development, spread and gradual decline of multiple negation constructions, may occupy a prominent place in the English language in the future. In summary, we interpret the linguistic category of negation as a pragmatic universal as a broad-based concept in which the most general and fundamental properties, peculiarities, connections and relations of objects and phenomena of the objective world always find their evolutionary reflection and require the latest linguistic and interpretive mechanisms of his cognition.

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