В настоящей статье рассматриваются вопросы столкновения общественного сознания c новым пластом лексики, возникшим в результате пандемии COVID-19, и проблемы восприятия новой языковой культуры данного периода. С появлением нового заболевания стали стремительно возникать в языках всего мира лексические единицы для обозначения не существовавших ранее явлений. Такие лексические единицы, или неологизмы, заимствовались русским языком практически без изменения словоформы, что приводило к не всегда адекватному восприятию новостной информации и, как следствие, к неточному соблюдению ковидных предписаний. Авторы статьи проанализировали англоязычные и русскоязычные публикации, представленные в открытом доступе на сайтах современных онлайнизданий: BBC News, The Conversation, The Economic Times, aif.ru, Life.ru, Lenta.ru и др. Выбор онлайн-ресурсов обоснован тем, что именно они являются чрезвычайно плодотворными источниками неологизмов. Хронологические рамки исследования были ограничены апрелем 2020 - сентябрем 2022 гг. В целом авторы обработали более 200 000 печатных знаков английского текста и методом сплошной выборки отобрали лексические единицы, представляющие собой неологизмы периода коронавируса. С целью анализа восприятия новых лексичесикх единиц студентам и преподавателям Ульяновского государственного университета было предложено дать определения отобранным неологизмам и указать, изменилось ли их восприятие данного термина с начала пандемии. Данная работа является продолжением проводимого авторами исследования проблемы появления новых тематических неологизмов, результаты которого были опубликованы ранее. Результаты анализа материала показывают, что в начале пандемии большинство опрошенных не понимали точного значения терминов, что вело к проблемам адаптации к новой языковой культуре.

Ключевые слова: неологизмы коронавирусной эпохи, транскрипция, калькирование, COVID-19, восприятие, языковая культура

Introduction

public vocabulary language culture

Language is a crucial component of any society. It is a means of communication, it expresses our thoughts and feelings, reflects human history and spiritual life. Besides, it quickly responds to all changes taking place all over the world. In the past two years, the entire world has been subjected to major upheavals caused by the novel coronavirus infection, or COVID-19. The disease hit not only the medical sphere; it also negatively affected the field of education, catering and entertainment, and, as a result, dented the economy worldwide. COVID-19 had a negative effect on the general psychological status of the population, not only because everyone was afraid of a deadly disease, but also because of a general misunderstanding of what was happening, because of the rapid changes in regular life-style described by new ususally unclear lexical units.

It is known that the vocabulary of any language reacts quite quickly to the impact of external factors, so it is not surprising that the COVID-19 pandemic is also reflected in the language (Egorova, E. I. Krasheninnikova, & N. A. Krasheninnikova, 2021). During the pandemic, new words have emerged much faster than ever. British lexicographer, a leading authority on language change, author of A Dictionary of Modern English Slang, Tony Thorne claims that the coronavirus outbreak has spawned more than 1,000 new words. The situation is not surprising, as, on the one hand, new words are needed to explain the changes that we are seeing in the modern world, and, on the other hand, quarantine or self-isolation makes people create new words that would more accurately described their behavior in the new reality. Until now, Covid-19 is considered to be one of the most discussed topics in the media. However, the issues related to our experiencing a new language culture have not yet been well-studied.

The relevance of the research topic is determined, on the one hand, by the necessity to solve practical problems of translation, including the choice of the best ways to transfer the pandemic vocabulary from English into Russian, and on the other hand, by the importance of studying the problem how the general population perceive the pandemic vocabulary. As we have already mentioned, COVID-19 transformed all languages to include new lexical units into our daily vocabulary. Every new stage of development or any kinds of social upheaval lead to the emergence of either new words or the formation of new meanings for lexical units, which have already existed in the language. Thus, the development of the Internet has become the impetus for the emergence of many terms that can now be found almost in all languages. In our opinion, news is one of the most fruitful sources of neologisms, since its aim is to reflect all the changes taking place in society. The online resources were chosen due to their accessibility. Obviously, the translation of neologisms is one of the most difficult problems that professional translators face, as they have to keep up with the rapidly changing realities and, as a result, create new lexical units. At the same time, the media text can undoubtedly be considered the main source of information, without which no modern society exists. Human behavior, their psychological state and, as in the case of a pandemic, compliance with quarantine measures depend on how people understand and perceive the news.

The aim of the paper was to identify and analyze COVID-19 vocabulary in modern English-language and Russian-language media, to consider the most productive ways of translating these lexical units from English into Russian. Moreover, the authors set the task of determining how correctly the audience perceived the COVID neologisms that were widely used in the media of that period.

The ideas of such prominent scientists as A. Bell, D. Crystal, V. N. Komissarov, V. G. Kostomarov, etc. were used as a theoretical basis of the work (Bell, 1991; Crystal, 2010; Komissarov, Retsker, & Tarkhov, 2005; Kostomarov, 1994). The texts of modern English-language and Russian-language online publications (BBC News, The Conversation, The Economic Times, aif.ru, Life.ru, Lenta.ru, etc.) served as the study material. The scientific novelty lies in a comprehensive study of the materials of modern online media (2020-2022), which allowed us to identify new lexical units characterizing the COVID-19 pandemic and the degree of their perception by the audience.

Since its outbreak in Wuhan, China, in 2019, COVID-19 (in Russia often reffered to as Coronavirus) has transformed from a distant threat to an almost familiar reality becoming part of our daily lives. In the course of pandemic, a large number of neologisms describing the new reality appeared in all languages. S. G. Ter-Minasova notes that the flow of new lexical units, on the one hand, makes our speech more accurate, but, on the other hand, introduces a number of interlingual difficulties (Ter-Minasova, 2002).

Since the beginning of 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic has become one of the most discussed topics in the media. Every day, people all over the world were reading daily reports and current news related to the pandemic and the fight against it (Zheltukhina, & Paramonova, 2020). The news articles of that period included a significant number of neologisms, as the authors were trying to describe the new reality. L. V. Babina notes that the emergence of neologisms may be the result of scientific progress, social and cultural changes. Moreover, the desire of individuals to reflect their changing attitude to the surrounding reality can also evoke the emergence of new words (Babina, 2020).

It should be noted that all of us have witnessed the emergence of the pandemic neologisms and the way they have been assimilated by the language. Mass media have contributed greatly to this process, as they reflect the events taking place in the world around us (Kupina, 2020). The ambiguous and uncertain situation inevitably caused a strong explosion of pandemic content in the media, which led to the rapid displacement of previously discussed topics into the background.

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought unprecedented changes to our world, which inevitably led to the emergence of new vocabulary. New lexical units were aimed to designate unknown phenomena and concepts. Moreover, the new vocabulary has contributed to the formation of the “image of the era” (Barkinkhoeva, 2017), turning the words into symbols or modern linguistic markers (Mayer, 2020).

The discourse characterizing the COVID-19 era, on the one hand, contains a special layer of vocabulary that simply did not exist in any language before the pandemic, and, on the other hand, includes a number of words or phrases which have radically changed their meaning during the pandemic. Adequate perception of such lexical units is possible only in a certain context, or, in other words, these lexical units will serve as markers of the pandemic discourse, since the semantic structure contains information related to this discourse.

The COVID-19 era is characterized by a special discourse, the main topic of which is to describe the disease, its distribution, and changes that have occurred in society due to COVID-19. The coronavirus pandemic is reflected in medical, political, economic, phsychological and linguistic discourses. In Russian linguistics, V. I. Karasik was one of the first to describe the COVID-19 pandemic in terms of discourse. He notes that blogs, having become an important component of media communication, have led to a change in ideas on the reliability of information presented in the media. In modern society, in the news flow, fakes and facts are almost equivalent (Karasik, 2020).

O. N. Novikova and Yu. V. Kalugin use the term “pandemic discourse”. They note that it is distinguished by “heterogeneity and complexity of the structure: the main communicative sphere is represented not only by professional medical activities, but also by political, religious, pedagogical, etc.; the global community of participants contributes to the particular characteristics of communication; communicative situations are also diverse” (Novikova, & Kalugina, 2020).

Another important aspect of the pandemic is its negative impact on the psychological state of people. Clinical psychologists notice that quarantine, self-isolation, social distancing and other shifts to which all citizens were reduced in order to prevent the spreading of a new virus led to an increased level of anxiety, insomnia and emotional instability, psychosomatic manifestations, post-traumatic syndrome, and depression (Chukavina, 2020). Scientists studying the impact of pandemic on the society emphasize that each new epidemic symbolizes another crisis, covering a separate state or civilization. In the modern world, we can talk about the worldwide epidemic of mental illness, psychiatric and behavioral emergencies (Mikhel, 2021). News of the pandemic period is one of the main sources of negative information and contributes to an increase in anxiety and emotional instability, and the presence of a large number unfamiliar vocabulary exacerbates the situation.

Thus, the wide distribution of lexical units during the COVID-19 pandemic, many of which have not yet been fixed in the dictionary, is of great interest for research, since it is also necessary to study how these words ared perceived by the target audience, both young people and adolescents (Kadnichanskaya, Galkina, & Khairullina, 2022).

Materials and Methods

The authors analyzed English-language and Russian-language publications presented on the websites of BBC News, The Conversation, The Economic Times, aif. ru, Life.ru, Lenta.ru, etc. About 200,000 printed characters of the text were processed using the continuous sampling method in order to select the new terms characterizing the COVID-19 pandemic. The authors compared English and Russian lexical units and identified the most common translation techniques. The authors compiled a dictionary containing 143 words and phrases describing objects and phenomena associated with the Coronavirus. Using text frequency analysis, the authors chose the most commonly used terms (20 words and phrases) and invited students and professors of Ulyanovsk State University to define these words and indicate whether their perception of these words had changed since the beginning of the pandemic. A total of 98 students and 23 professors took part in the survey. The chronological scope of the study is limited to April 2020 - September 2022.

Results and Discussion

Having analyzed the material, we selected 143 words and phrases that describe objects and phenomena associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Firstly, all words were divided into 5 groups, depending on their novelty and wordbuilding.

The first group included neologisms that came into our everyday language from limited medical terminology. These lexical units existed earlier, but were used only among medical workers. The examples of such lexical units are fomite, seroprevalence, anosmia, etc. The second also quite extensive group contained lexical units with the very name of the virus, namely COVID or corona, e.g. coronacrisis, coronacoma, coronatimes, coronanoia, etc. The third group consisted of combinations of words that existed earlier, but experienced a semantic shift, as well as those that arose to denote realities that did not exist before, e. g. red zone, air bridge, security theater, etc. The fourth group of words were words that appeared in the language to reflect the new reality, ranging from work at home (WFH -- working from home / remote work) to the names of the days of the week (Someday, Noneday, Whoseday?, Whensday?, Blursday, Whyday?, Doesn `tmatterday) indicating another unremarkable day. The fifth group of neologisms included words formed with the help of phonetic distortion of concepts available in the language. This was the smallest group and contained such words as maskulinity (a macho refusal to wear a face covering), zoombie (malicious violator of a video conference), smizing (smiling eyes when wearing a mask), etc.

Secondly, having compared English and Russian neologisms and statistically analysed the material, we distinguished three most common types of translation techniques, which were used while rendering texts from English into Russian, namely, transcription, transliteration and tracing. We consider such techniques as transcription and transliteration together, since they rarely occur in their pure form. Let us look at some examples. The word doomscrolling / думскроллинг is used in both English and Russian languages:

With much of the world facing travel restrictions and in need of a break from doomscrolling and Netflix, many turned to hobbies as a way to soothe their work-from-home burnout.

Исследователи Техасского технологического университета сделали вывод, что думскроллинг подрывает здоровье, причем не только психическое, но и физическое.

It means constant reading of bad news negatively affects human mental state. Despite the fact that the neologism is found in both English and Russian media texts, only 12 % of the respondents know its meaning.

Another striking neologism is the zoombombing / зумбомбинг. The neologism refers to bot or prank attacks on online meetings in order to disrupt them with viral videos. At the beginning of the pandemic no one knew the meaning of this lexical unit. However, during the online-classes, meetings, conferences or other events some professors and students experienced zoombombing (21 %), thus, they have learned what it means (Krasheninnikova, 2021). It should also be noted, that in the Russian media zoombombind can be spelt both in the Cyrillic and Latin alphabet. Here are the examples in both languages:

In recent weeks, as schools, businesses, support groups and millions of individuals have adopted Zoom as a meeting platform, reports of “Zoombombing” by uninvited participants have become frequent.

Zoom bombing стал особенно частым явлением в период пандемии коронавируса, когда многие школы стали пользоваться программой Zoom для проведения онлайн-уроков. Как избежать зумбомбинга?

One more distint characteristic of the pandemic discourse is the abundance of purely medical terms in the articles on covid topics. The professional terms which were earlier peculiar to the speech of physicians have become widely spread (Golovanova, 2021). For example, anosmia / аносмия (complete or partial loss of smell), fomite / фомит (an object contaminated with pathogenic organisms that can contribute to the transmission of the disease), saturation / сатурация (an indicator of blood oxygen saturation), etc.

In addition, there has been a shift in lexical meaning of some common words, as they acquired a new lexical meaning during the pandemic. For example, quarantine / карантин (a measure to prevent the spread of an infectious disease, in which a healthy person who could have been in contact with an infected person is isolated during the incubation period of the disease), isolation / изоляция (a preventive measure against the spread of an infectious disease, which consists in separating an infected person from an uninfected one during the infectious period of the disease) and, of course, lockdown / локдаун (an emergency protocol designed to restrict movement and public meeting for reasons of public health or safety).

It is obvious that these words do not cause difficulty in translation, but they can be quite difficult to perceive, since they have not yet been fully assimilated into the language.

Calquing is another popular translation technique for rendering COVID-19 vocabulary. For example,

Man who confronted anti-masker may be charged with assault, say police. Антимасочник задержан за стрельбу по людям в московском МФЦ.

In the new normal, the word mask is a strong marker of the COVID-19 discourse. People who refuse to wear a mask in public places have become commonly referred to as anti-maskers. Due to the fact that the word was formed by affixation and both prefix antiand root mask are familiar to everyone, all the respondents either know or can guess the meaning of this neologism.

However, not all lexical units can be understood from the context. Such terms as Covid arm / ковидная рука, Covid tongue / ковидный язык, and Covid toe / ковидные пальцы may seem similar. Nevertheless, Covid arm is a side effect of the Covid-19 vaccine, a big red spot around the injection site, while Covid tongue and Covid toe are symptoms of Coronavirus. In the first case the patients experience inflammation of the tongue, blisters, mouth ulcers and swelling and in the second case COVID-19 causes first redness and then blue toes, making them look like they have been frostbitten.

The word bubble / пузырь can be considered as an interesting example of a lexical shift, when a lexical unit has acquired a completely new meaning during the pandemic. Bubble is a group people, not necessarily members of the same family, who agree not to follow the anti-COVID measures, for example, physical distancing. The number of people forming a bubble can vary, but it is a closed group; i.e., once it is formed, its elements do not change and cannot become part of another bubble. Such words are usually not recognized by the respondents. Even if they think, that they know the meaning of such terms, their definition is far from being correct. Other examples of lexical units that have undergone a semantic shift include such expressions as red zone (the geographical area classified as having the highest rate of infected individuals who should be quarantined), cold zone, or green zone (an area in a medical facility where patients not suffering from the infectious disease that caused the epidemic are being treated), warm zone or yellow zone (an area in a medical facility where patients who are suspected of having an infectious disease associated with the epidemic are being treated).

Still, the greatest amount of new lexcal units are those, that have arisen due to pandemic and denote new, previously non-existing realities. The examples of such units are social / physical distancing (a strategy aimed at preventing the spread of an infectious disease, when close contacts and large crowds of people should be avoided and every one should follow the rules prescribed by the health authorities). If the term physical distancing emphasizes the physical distance required between people and does not mean that people should remain socially isolated, then social distancing also implies sanitary and epidemiological measures aimed at combating the disease. Again, none of the respondents knew the difference between these two terms, considering them to be synonyms.

Thirdly, since the start of the pandemic countless people have suffered from psychological distress and symptoms of depression, anxiety or post-traumatic stress. We assume, that not only the fear of a deadly disease contributed to such psychological conditions, but also community's misconception of COVID-19 caused by simple misunderstanding. As it has already been mentioned, during the study we asked both students (aged 18-25) and professors (aged 37-62) to define new lexical units in order to understand whether they were perceiving them correctly. We found that those respondents, who knew the English languages (mainly, professors of the English language department) were more likely to understand the neologism, as they were able either to translate it or to guess its meaning. Young people were more vulnerable to social distress, as they faced university closures, and to adjust to a new way of learning and were not able to apprehend the situation. Besides, they spent much more time surfing the net and doomscrolling, which inevitably led to stress. Our finding corresponds with those of the World Health Organization, which states that “the impact of COVID-19 on mental health cannot be underestimated” (World Health Organization, 2022). Moreover, we are absolutely sure, that in the case of quick global changes, when the language is undergoing significant changes, special glossaries should be made as soon as possible. Such glossaries should be available to the general public, so that every one could find the unknown term and understand its meaning. A good example of Glossary on the COVID-19 pandemic is available at the site of Canadian government (Glossary on the COVID-19 pandemic, 2021).

Conclusion

Being the language of international communication, English has had a significant impact on the information flow during the COVID-19 pandemic. In particular, English media texts are one of the main sources of neologisms. When rendering English-language news, translators have to deal with new formations, and they are faced with the task of adequately conveying such lexical units. The analysis showed that such translation techniques as transcription, transliteration and calquing are mainly used for rendering new lexical units from one language into another.

However, an analysis of the poll suggests that at the beginning of the pandemic, the population was not ready to accept the new language culture. Thus, all respondents noted the fact that they perceived the new disease only as “Coronavirus” or COVID-19, and did not understand what was being said when the abbreviations 2019-nCoV or SARS-CoV-2 were used in news reports. All respondents also noted that the words lockdown and quarantine were perceived by them as synonyms, about 30% of the respondents still do not see the difference between these terms.

One more fact is also worth noting: the COVID-19 pandemic has led to the medicalization of everyday language, i. e. a large number of purely medical terms were introduced into our everyday speech. Not a single respondent knew the meaning of the word saturation before the COVID-19 pandemic. At the moment, it is familiar to all those were officially diagnosed with this disease (85 %), since saturation was measured in all medical institutions. The same is true with the term reproduction index (R-number). No one knew the meaning of this term in March 2020. At the moment, 52 % are aware that this is the average number of people that one infected person can infect.

Thus, COVID-19 has greatly changed our lives, a general lockdown led to selfisolation and distancing. People in quarantine or working online found themselves at the mercy of a new unfamiliar language that they had somehow to perceive in order to correctly assess current events and respond to changing reality. It is not surprising that a large number of people were faced with the problem of adequate perception of the new language suggested by the media. Although some terms seemed to be quite transparent and understandable, even they required careful interpretation. The situation with the pandemic has shown the importance of effective communication, since it helps to follow all the necessary instructions and comply with safety measures.

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