Reframing English Studies in India: Socio-Psycholinguistic Issues
Consideration of the theory and practice of rethinking English philology (English studies) in India in the light of decolonization theories. The search for colonial elements in English and their removal in order to make this discipline more meaningful.
| Ðóáðèêà | Èíîñòðàííûå ÿçûêè è ÿçûêîçíàíèå |
| Âèä | ñòàòüÿ |
| ßçûê | àíãëèéñêèé |
| Äàòà äîáàâëåíèÿ | 09.03.2023 |
| Ðàçìåð ôàéëà | 422,5 K |
Îòïðàâèòü ñâîþ õîðîøóþ ðàáîòó â áàçó çíàíèé ïðîñòî. Èñïîëüçóéòå ôîðìó, ðàñïîëîæåííóþ íèæå
Ñòóäåíòû, àñïèðàíòû, ìîëîäûå ó÷åíûå, èñïîëüçóþùèå áàçó çíàíèé â ñâîåé ó÷åáå è ðàáîòå, áóäóò âàì î÷åíü áëàãîäàðíû.
One should be fair enough to acknowledge the political angle to academics too. As in the case of Nobel Prize in matters of databases also the Global North and Global South divide and the Capitalist and the Socialist World divide exists. There is a very meagre contribution from the former colonies in these databases if one goes by the percentage of the publications. An analysis of these contributions from the Global South also reveals that the authors use western methods of analysis as they have largely been trained in those methods either in their homelands or in the foreign universities. Their researches are either derivative or they conform to the stereotyped images of their societies. «The Orient» is almost missing there in terms of approaches or the opinions. In contrast to this, these databases paint a picture of Western societies as ideal. These databases perpetuate the colonial stereotypes about the people who come from the so-called developing world as «backward, lazy, ignorant, and irresponsible». They also encourage the scientists in the Northern block to consider the developing countries to be their field-laboratories.
Level playing fields supposedly exist in a global world and the globalized world is considered to be free and open for all this is correct only at an ideational level. The case of the universities is not much different. That the British universities treat coloured people with different opinions and different faiths differently is clear from the episode Rashmi Samant, the first female Indian president-elect of Oxford University Student Union (OUSU), who was hounded and made to resign despite having been duly elected. These universities are not places for close examination of truth but intolerant in nature as they have been founded on intolerant doctrinal faiths. In such circumstances it is not fair to expect an independent view or a contrary view in the journals there. As a matter of fact, the politics and pressure of publication have become a means to throttle indigenous knowledge systems. The journals, the editors and the reviewers insist on a particular point of view in an article, though most of the journals will try to project themselves as apolitical. Many journals are run by the political affiliates; they try to perpetuate the politically convenient truths to suit their political ideology. There are journals that get their support from certain religious groups; they too propagate religiously convenient truths and throttle the alternative approaches and views. Even the UN propagates Abrahamic biases47 in various walks of life and Abrahamic «doctrinal intolerance» is imposed on the groups of other faiths through various means, education being one. The contempt and hatred for nonAbrahamic religions is so apparent in not only in the religious fields but also in the academic field and knowledge systems. In the quest of truth, knowledge bases of the non-monolithic civilizations are derided or at best ignored by the West.
The quality of a research article is most often judged on the basis of the journal it gets published in and not because of its intrinsic worth. Many of the prestigious journals charge a hefty publication fee under different names like handling charges, photograph charges, proof-reading charges, language-translation charges, membership charges and publication fees. For example, the papers for publication in PMLA can only be submitted by the members48 of Modern Language Association. The minimum annual fee of the Association is US $ 29 and the maximum is $ 387 (mla.org). The payment of the membership fee or the amount on some other counts to the foreign journal is to be made in foreign currency49. The teachers/ researchers in India are supposed to fund the memberships on their own which in some cases is about six month's salary of a teacher in a developing country which is quite unbearable for an individual. There is hardly any government support for research in the former colonies because the higher structures in the administration continues with the colonial framework that believes in more or less importing things and ideas from the former masters or their allies. Hardly any Indian university has been publishing research journals, particularly in Arts and Humanities regularly. Those that used to bring out their journals have stopped them long ago, in some cases after a few issues.50 No wonder hardly any university/academy journal has found an entry into Scopus or UGC CARE List.
The issue of funding of a journal cannot be side-tracked at this juncture somebody has to fund the publication activity -be it the Government, editors, writers, publishers, subscribers, readers or donors. In order to mock and strangulate the voice of the marginalised authors the self-financed journals that largely run on a cooperative funding basis are branded as «predatory journals». The issue can be equated to that of subsidy given by the developing countries in various fields to meet the challenges from the developed countries. As the grant of subsidy in developing countries is resented by the developed nations similarly business houses in the highly oligopolistic field resent the cooperative funding in the publications. They lobby so that their field of operation largely remains competition-free. They, therefore, indulge in all sorts of anti-competitive practices and establish a sort of neo-capitalist monopoly in the publishing world.
There is a great deal of discussion51 about the issue of different charges by the journals. The established journals keep on encashing their reputation and the scholars from the former colonies keep on resenting. The state of funding in the subjects in Humanities is very poor in general. Underdeveloped/ Undeveloped countries do not fully fund the research undertaken by the people. It is true that one may not have enough money to pay an exorbitant amount in order to get published in the «top class journals». It may safely be concluded that doing research and getting published is very difficult for a poor person without any financial support. The scholars from the third world should therefore try to publish materials having intrinsic worth in their own lands. In order to bring it in the larger domain they may use databases like <academia.edu>, <arhives.org>, <libgen.is>, <digitallibraryindia>, <delnet.in>, <egyankosh.ac.in>, <ndl.iitkgp.ac.in> and many other such websites.
Another tool to keep knowledge production confined to the sacrosanct space of the coloniser and to throttle independent thinking and publication are various indices and impact factors. Interestingly all indexed journals are not assigned an Impact Factor. One has to shelve a heavy amount to the agency for getting the impact factor of a journal. Different agencies may calculate them differently as there is no specific formula for it. Complicated algorithms have been developed to calculate the impact factor of a journal. Non-transparent methods are used to collect citations and negative citations are used to the peril of the journals and researchers. Some other tools to throttle research and prove the knowledge base of the ex-colonies bogus are: Some other tools to throttle research and prove the knowledge base of the ex-colonies bogus are: an insistence on the use of analysis on certain machines to generate data, an insistence on the use of English/ or some other European language for communication and papers/articles, various indices developed to measure the importance of a journal, the citation and the distribution channels of the journals, a limited online access of the publications, preference of the journal-publishers for articles of a certain type, the publication lag, citing behaviour across subjects, and the possibility of exertion of influence from journal editors. These factors are instrumental in extending, strengthening and cementing the field of colonization in academics.
The indexed journals generally have a three-tier review system. The article should in the first-place appeal to the editor. It is then be often sent to two reviewers, for a blind review. The blind peer-reviewing is not really blind. The reviewers generally look for the latest articles and books in the Work Cited List but in the colonised world the available secondary materials are generally 30-50-year-old (particularly in Humanities) and in some cases it could be even a hundred-year-old (e.g. a paper on Shakespeare may refer to a classic like A.C. Bradley's Shakespearean Tragedy, 1904). The reviewers also see if their work or their foe's work has been referred to in the article under reference. A friend of mine submitted a paper on Mia poetry to one such journal. First, the editor wanted him to make some changes. Next, the reviewers said that it «presented a biased view of the poetry». The article was rejected. When the same article was referred to me, I found the interpretation reasonable and logical; but the article had already been rejected because it did not match the reviewers' political stand.
The story of a publication in a book form is not different either. The forces other than literary merit and achievements that spring up from the complicated matrix of six elements: (the elitist background of the) author, the language chosen, (location, position of the) publication house, the advertising and marketing agencies, (the reviewers and the editors of) the journals and the media and the university departments of English etc have been discussed by M Srabha in her The Waffle of the Toffs: A Sociocultural Critique of Indian Writing in English (Op. Cit.). Without mincing words, she says, «... the present-day IWE writer is the neo-coloniser who has seized the organs of publishing, the organs of publicity, the organs of state patronage, and the organs of higher education within the country» (Pra bha, 2000, p. 254). Actually, it is this sort of «smart alecks, the sly, shrewd intellectuals» (Fanon, 2004, p. 12) who have learnt the ropes of manoeuvring that Frantz Fanon has cautioned the people against.
Medium of Instruction / Examination / Writing
The primary purpose of education is the betterment of society as a whole by developing rational, mature and empathetic human beings. All teaching activities including reading, writing and evaluating students focus on this and have to be organised with this objective in mind. The objective of a course in literature is to develop understanding of an individual by honing his/her analytical skills. By carefully selecting literary works, the teachers try to show to their students how the world works, how to find relevance and meaning in their lives, how to enjoy reading literature and how to find out merit and meaning in a text. With this view in mind, a close, objective and text-centred literary analysis is the primary focus in a literature course/ classroom. Certain evaluation strategies are used to evaluate the performance and understanding of the learners. Whether the evaluation of candidates is possible in English or in other languages (mother-tongues) has been a point of controversy in the second language situation. The related issue is if the research articles have to be written in English or in the regional languages. Currently, in Indian situation, only Sahitya Akademi felicitates some sort of bilingualism in matters of publications e. g. a paper on a Punjabi author may get published in English, in the literary magazine, Indian Literature or a paper on Vikram Seth's poetry may be published in Hindi in Samkaleen Bhartiya Sahitya.
Bilingual method of teaching (materials, medium of instruction and evaluation) and research are very well recognised all over the world and have gainfully been used at primary and secondary levels. It has also been used in some Indian universities (un)officially to teach English literature as is clear from the popularity of various bilingual university level text-books in different states. However, this sort of teaching and book-production are frowned at by some of the Indian academicians who deride it as substandard teaching/learning material for the rustics. Such anglophiles are condemned as Macaulay ki aulad by the nativists.
There appears to be a symbiotic relationship between economic prosperity and attitude towards languages. If the figures of bilinguals and tri-linguals in the Indian Census 2011 are any proof monolingualism leads to poverty. Those states that have the higher number of bilinguals and tri-linguals are developed but the states where predominantly monolinguals stay, are backward. Of late, a new class of monolingual, English speaking, social elites have emerged particularly in the metros through expensive English medium schooling; they are not only blind to several dimensions of culture but they also perceive reality only through one lens. Their appreciation of literature also is just an extension of the Christo-Anglo-American literary-view. On the other hand, we have a large number of colleges and universities in the far-flung areas where the students wish to acquire some skills in English language somehow and the teachers wish that the students should somehow be able to follow, understand and appreciate their lectures. The bilingual method comes handy to such teachers and students. But, some professors and their sponsor, British Council of India ft American agencies and some publishing house, close their eyes to this issue. Ignoring the advantages of bilingualism52 they advocate the monolingualism of English and try to thrust it on people in several ways. It may not be out of place to mention that the books published by the so-called elite publishers are exorbitantly priced in comparison to bilingual books or the books in the regional languages as the publishers are eyeing people from different economic backgrounds.
It is not that all university teachers/departments are averse to bilingualism. This method is being successfully used in some of the modern universities of India. The teaching and learning of Sanskrit53 is a case in point. If one pursues MA Sanskrit in the Department of Sanskrit, Delhi University, «[t]he medium of instruction and examination shall be either English, or Hindi, or Sanskrit».54 In Aligarh Muslim University too the answers to the questions may be written either in English or Hindi or Sanskrit. In Nagpur University, the answers may be written in Sanskrit/English/Marathi. Thus, a candidate may pass the examination without uttering a word of Sanskrit if there is no viva-voce exam and without writing a word in Sanskrit. In some universities a compulsory question/paper, Essay, is there which has to be answered in Sanskrit, but it carries only a limited number of marks. Even a doctoral dissertation in Sanskrit Department can be written in Hindi or English or Sanskrit. The situation is almost the same in all the modern Indian universities; only in the departments/universities (like Central Sanskrit University) where Sanskrit is being taught in a traditional manner, the medium of instruction is Sanskrit and the doctoral dissertation is written in Sanskrit. At Allahabad University up to 1980s the PG question papers in Sanskrit Dept used to be in both English and Hindi and the answers could be written in either of the languages. These days the question papers are only in Hindi and the candidates are supposed to answer them in Hindi. Only one question each of essay and translation has to be answered in Sanskrit. In the examinations conducted by various public service commissions like UPSC, UPPSC and recruitment board like UPHESC only the question paper comes in Sanskrit; the candidates have to answer their questions either in Hindi or in English. It may sound strange to some persons but this is quite logical. The language of the study of physics is not physics but a language like English or French. If Sanskrit is a subject, it may be studied in Sanskrit or in Hindi or English or any other language. From this discussion it is clear that reading comprehension in Sanskrit is considered sufficient by most of the «modern intellectuals» in case of a language that is ancient and classical the candidate needs to hone his analytical skills and express himself in the mother tongue.
The same argument is extendable to English. English can also be studied through English or Bangla or Hindi. The requirement in the country is that a person who reads a government order in English should be able to comprehend it and explain it in the local language. In fact, bilingualism as a method of teaching has been quite a popular and successful model all over the world. In Eastern Europe, Russia and some Latin American countries, the academic journals (in English Literature) are bilingual. Articles on English/American Literature are published in both English and the language of the country. Nobody, can even think of such a situation in India where the intellectuals have yet to come out of the colonial hangover. Some stray efforts made in the direction have not been successful as is clear from the following example. Professor Ram Bilas Sharma (1912 2000) an eminent progressive literary critic, linguist, poet and thinker but a teacher of English brought out the second edition (1998) of his book, Essays on Shakespearean Tragedy, with a detailed introduction in Hindi. The book failed in the market and the publisher reissued the two other books of his, Nineteenth Century Poets (1999) and Keats and The PreRaphaelites (2005) without his detailed introductions in Hindi to the chagrin of the author.
As a matter of fact, British Council of India through some professors of influential universities, discourage bilingualism in English studies for monetary reasons and for maintaining colonial hegemony. This helps them increase their empire and business as it increases the country's dependence on them. The process of neo-colonisation begins with the introduction of mono-lingualism of English; the people are lured to this by promising their empowerment though in the process they lose their identity and are colonised forever. Language of publication is again a coloniser's tool. For example, if a person wishes to publish a research paper on Odia people's stresses during the period of Corona in Odia, one will find only a Journal hopefully based somewhere in Odisha. But certain databases may not be indexing the journals in Odia. Thus, a person either will not write a paper in Odia or his findings will not reach the world outside Odia domain.
Conclusion
One may note that the idea of decolonisation was initiated by the African scholars though African scholarship has always been ignored not only in the EuroAmerican intellectual world but also in Asia. The African scholars' ideas are being appropriated in almost all the former colonies because they are so convincing and down to earth. One sometimes wonders why books like Decolonising the Mind or The Wretched of the Earth or The Colonizer and the Colonized could not be produced by Indian (leftist/ moderate/ liberal) scholars though the idea of communism in India is as old as communism itself. Otherwise also there is hardly any seminal book by such scholars about Indian reality or human reality in the colonial world to my mind. In the prevailing situation, there is hardly any possibility in the future either. After all no nation can survive only on the borrowed ideas and technology in a long run. One needs to have a sense of pride and attachment to one's roots to produce an influential work of this nature. I also realize that unless our education/ English Studies are oriented towards the nation there is no possibility of any important work being produced in English either. A crown is never put on a borrowed head. The above discussion/article is the result of exploring such questions.
One needs to ponder over the politics of social movements also. All kinds of activists run different kinds of movements in India many of them have their origins in foreign lands as well. It may also be noted that the Indian university campuses were neither stirred by the movements like #RhodesMustFall (#RMF), `Why is My Curriculum White?', `Decolonise Education' and `Decolonise University' which having crossed the African boundaries reached several British and American universities nor did they (Indian universities) have any parallels to them. Even the tremors of these movements were not felt in India though movements like #MeToo or #LGBTpride spread their horizons to the Indian landscape. Similarly, there was no loud noise in India about the movements like #LeopoldMustFall or #GandhiMustFall. This sort of intellectual and social apathy is reflective of the bourgeoise mentality of the persons/intellectuals concerned. Most of the movements in India worth the name are spearheaded by the persons/ NGOs with leftist orientation and supported by the liberals a new term, «urban naxals» (Gurung Aug 30, 2018), is used for them these days. The ideologies of Marxism/ Leninism/ Maoism are some of the techniques to colonise minds and those who appropriate it, cannot afford to decolonise their minds. If they do, they will have to shed their identity first. This group of intellectuals neither revere India, nor do they hold India, Indian traditions and Indian history in high esteem as they hope to run it on an imported ideology. What an irony of situation, the ideas of a political radical, and Marxist humanist like Fanon and those of a «vernacular socialist» like Ngugi have been blown over by the Indian leftists but have been appropriated by the right-wing activists. The project of re-writing history text-books has to be viewed in this light. They have also held at least one national seminar on «Decolonising the Mind» (15th 16th April 2017) at Ahmedabad, Gujarat.
Some scholars on the other hand are announcing the irrelevance of Postcolonialism and even «Death of Postcolonialism» (Madiou, 2021, p. 1-12, Paranjape, 2022) in view of the fact that after 9/11 every sympathy has turned towards the former colonizers. But the issue is not dead it springs up in a movement like #Blacklivesmatter which is used as a plank to overthrow «rightist» Trump. Similarly, the moves to give more space to the unrepresented sections of society and ignored periods of history in the Indian text-books indicate that the movement is still relevant. The ball has been set rolling various inclusive projects have been initiated. The projects for freeing knowledge from the Western domination to include people and knowledge/ knowledge systems from the fringes, the adoption of multiculturalism, and the acceptance of multiple-realities etc are some of the examples of the changing scenario.
Homi Bhabha has written about the hybridity of cultures and people. There are no «original» or «pure» cultures or people and there have perhaps n ever been. In fact, if someone tries to retrieve the past and claims to gain the «inherent authenticity or purity of cultures» as exists in some texts or in someone's imagination the person is moving against the natural tendency of moving ahead by learning appropriate lessons from various encounters. One has to struggle to look for the roots and has to see that the grafting of some ideas on the plant should not endanger the plant itself. The purpose of decolonisation is to save the mother plant, the original culture of the native people, so that the inhabitants are not rendered «nowhere men». The process is not easy but is desirable. The needs of the society, bureaucracy and people have changed since the times of Macaulay. A cosmetic surgery of the syllabus by way of replacement of one text by another is not enough. Drastic changes are needed in attitude, syllabus, teaching materials and methods, medium of instructions, evaluation strategies and research to cater to these needs. The movement to decolonise English Studies will get momentum in the coming days; NEP 2020 will give it a required impetus. `Learning Outcomes based Curriculum Framework' is a step in that direction. The times of basking in the sunshine of the Raj seem to be over for the teachers of English.
Notes
1. Fabian Close holds that Moritz Julius Bonn was the first scholar to use the term decolonization in the academic discourse in his section on Imperialism in the Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences in 1932. (Klose, Fabian. «Decolonization and Revolution». European History Online. 2014, http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-and-the- world/european-overseas-rule/fabian-klose-decolonization-and-revolution. This opinion is also held by Wesseling, H.L. (1987). «Towards a History of Decolonization». Itinerario, 11, pp. 95-106. doi:10.1017/S0165115300015473.
2. Henri Fonfrede in his French-language tract, Decolonization of Algiers, «calls on the kingdom of France to end the six-year-old occupation of territory in North Africa». https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and- law/political-science-and-government/political-science-terms-and-concepts/decolonization.
3. «Restorative justice is an approach that offers offenders, victims and the community an alternative pathway to justice. It promotes the safe participation of victims in resolving the situation and offers people who accept responsibility for the harm caused by their actions an opportunity to make themselves accountable to those they have harmed». https://www.unodc.org/documents/iustice-and-prison-reform/20-01146 Handbook on Restorative Justice Programmes.pdf
4. «Famines:
1. In the last thirty years of the eighteenth century, 1769-1800 ... 4 cases.
2. In the first half of the nineteenth century 1802-38 ... 12 cases.
3. In the second half of the nineteenth century, 1854-1908 ... 35 cases.
And death from famine only during the nineteenth century is over thirty two millions ! Mr. William Digby in his «Prosperous British India» says that the loss of life by war in all world during 107 years (1793-1900) is five millions while the loss of life by famine in India during ten years (1891-1900) is nineteen millions! While according to the calculations of some British statisticians there are ninety millions of continually hungry people in British India at the beginning of the twentieth century! The truth of this appalling misrule and misery of the people is evident to every unbiassed person». (The Indian National Party. British Rule in India Condemned by the British Themselves, London: The Indian National Party, 1915, p. 8)
5. Several kinds of exorbitant taxes had been imposed by the British that led to various kinds of silent protests. For details on the issue kindly see the following two books: The Indian National Party. British Rule in India Condemned by the British Themselves, London: The Indian National Party, 1915 and Dharampal. Civil Disobedience in Indian Tradition, Collected Writings, Volume II, Mapusa: Other India Press, 2000.
6. Mahatma Gandhi mostly refers to the Western authorities to debunk the Western Civilization in the book. The only two non-European books that have been mentioned in the appendix to the book as a follow up study are: Dadabhai Naoroji's Poverty and Un-British Rule in India and Romesh Dutt's Economic History of India.
7. «England has applied three methods for the subjugation of India.
Conquest by trade -India's trade and industry have been destroyed, all her wealth has been ruthlessly plundered, and India in all her nakedness has been made economically dependent on Great Britain which country owed her industrial supremacy to the spoliation of India.
Conquest by deliberate subjection -All Indian aspirations and development of strong character have been suppressed. The Indian mind has been made barren of any originality, and deliberately kept in ignorance.
Conquest by paralysing and stupefying the mind of the people like drugging a person. The people are kept under an illusion in order to make them more amenable to British control. The people's character is deliberately debased, their mind is denationalized and perpetualy [sic] kept in ignorance and fed with stories of England's greatness and «mission» in the world, and systematic efforts are made to obliterate the race-consciousness». (The Indian National Party. British Rule in India Condemned by the British Themselves, London: The Indian National Party, 1915, pp. 8-9)
8. «It (Indo-Anglian poetry) starts as romantic poetry simply because it was born under Romantic influences. It becomes Victorian because English Romantic poetry became Victorian. It decided to go through a period of «Decadence» because the nineties were a period of «Decadence» in English poetry. After Decadence came the period of Georgianism and Indo-Anglian poetry, loyal as always, suddenly became Georgian. When English poetry became modernist, Indo-Anglian poetry had no alternative but to do the same». (Sudhir K. Arora, Cultural and Philosophical Reflections in Indian Poetry in English. Vol. I, New Delhi: Authors Press. 2016, p.13)
9. Three reports developed by Curriculum Development Centre in English, in 1989, 2001 and 2019 (UGC LOCF) have been in public domain
10. Erotic (srngara), Comic (hasya), Pathetic (karuna), Furious (raudra), Heroic (vira), Terrible (bhayanaka), Odious (bibhatsa) and Marvellous (adbhuta), Natya Shastra, Chapter VI Sentiments (rasa), Verse 15. Later aestheticians have added a few more like shanta, vatslaya etc to these eight.
11. «Assuredly it is the duty of the British Government in India to be not only tolerant but neutral on all religious questions ... . We are to teach false history, false astronomy, false medicine, because we find them in company with a false religion. We abstain, and I trust shall always abstain, from giving any public encouragement to those who are engaged in the work of converting the natives to Christianity». (T B Macaulay, «Minutes on Education», Macaulay Prose and Poetry. G M Young (Ed.). London: Rupert Hart Davis Soho Square, 1861, p. 728.)
12. For example, Sir John Edge applied the rule of construction of the Mimansa of Jaimini to the text of Vasistha while delivering the judgment in the case of Beni Prasad Vs. Hardai Bibi (ILR 1892 (14) Allahabad 67 (FB), www.casemine.com/iudgement/in/5ac5e3254a93261a1a73902f) . Some of the other cases where judgments were pronounced by the English judges using Indian authorities in jurisprudence are: Kalgavda Tavanappa Patil v Somappa Tamangavda Patil (ILR 1908 (33) Bom 669, https://indiankanoon.org/doc/682888/), V Subramania Ayyar v. Rathavelu Chetty (ILR 1917 (41) Ma 44 (FB), https://indiankanoon.org/doc/631973/) and Narayan Pundlik Valanju v. Laxman Daji Sirekar (ILR 1927(51) Bom784, https://indiankanoon.org/doc/494653/) .
13. The code was drafted on the recommendations of the first law commission of India, constituted in 1834 under the Charter Act of 1833 under the chairmanship of Thomas Babington Macaulay. The first final draft of the Indian Penal Code was submitted to the Governor-General of India in Council in 1837. It came into force in British India during the early British Raj period in 1862. However, it did not apply automatically in the Princely states, which had their own courts and legal systems until the 1940s.The Code was also adopted by the British colonial authorities in Colonial Burma, Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka), the Straits Settlements (now part of Malaysia), Singapore and Brunei, and remains the basis of the criminal codes in those countries.
14. Some of these judgements are available in K. L. Sarkar's Mimansa Rules of Interpretation: Tagore Law Lectures-1905, Ed. Justice Markandey Katju, New Delhi: Thomson Reuters, 4th edition, 2013, pp. 325-436.
15. Justice Markandey Katju holds that Mimansa Principles are better than Maxwellian principles: «The Mimansa Principles of Interpretation, as laid down by Jaimini around the 5 th century B.C. in his sutras and as explained by Sabar, Kumarila Bhatta, Prabhakar, Mandan Mishra, Shalignath, Parthasarathy Mishra, Apadeva, Shree Bhat Shankar, etc. were regularly used by our renowned jurists like Vijneshwara (author of Mitakshara), Jimutvahana (author of Dayabhaga), Nanda Pandit (author of Dattaka Mimansa), etc. whenever there they found any conflict between the various Smritis, e.g., Manusmriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti, or ambiguity, ellipse or absurdity in any Smriti. Thus, the Mimansa principles were our traditional system of interpretation of legal texts. Although originally they were created for interpreting religious texts pertaining to the Yagya (sacrifice), they were so rational and logical that gradually they came to be utilized in law, philosophy, grammar, etc., that is, they became of universal application. ... The Mimansa principles were regularly used by our great jurists for interpreting legal texts (see also in this connection P.V. Kane's `History of the Dharmashastra', Vol. V, Pt. II, Ch. XXIX and Ch. XXX, pp. 12821351). ... In Mimansa, casus omissus is known as adhyahara. The adhyahara principle permits us to add words to a legal text. However, the superiority of the Mimansa Principles over Maxwell's Principles in this respect is shown by the fact that Maxwell does not go into further detail and does not mention the sub-categories coming under the general category of casus omissus. In the Mimansa system, on the other hand, the general category of adhyahara has under it several sub-categories, e.g., anusanga, anukarsha, vakyashesha, etc». (Dr Rajbir Singh Dalal v. Chaudhari Devi Lal University, Sirsa & Anr., Civil Appeal No. 4908 of 2008, August 2008, https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1268797/)
16. For example, the first edition of Maxwell's Book on Interpretation was published in 1875 whereas Jaimini's Sutras have been in existence since about fifth century BC, even if we ignore other eight authorities, whose works have been lost, but are quoted by Jaimini in his treatise.
17. The fact has also been deplored by Justice Markandey Katju: «It is deeply regrettable that in our Courts of law lawyers quote Maxwell and Craies but nobody refers to the Mimansa Principles of interpretation. Most lawyers would not have even heard of their existence. Today our so-called educated people are largely ignorant about the great intellectual achievements of our ancestors and the intellectual treasury which they have bequeathed us. The Mimansa Principles of interpretation is part of that great intellectual treasury, but ... there has been almost no ut ilization of these principles even in our own country. Many of the Mimansa Principles are rational and scientific and can be utilized in the legal field». https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1268797/, https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1557228/. This sentiment has been repeated in several of his articles, speeches and judgements with minor variation in language, some of which can be located at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/461003/, https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1313824/, https:// indiankanoon.org/doc/295313/. https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1223233/ Allahabad Highcourt, Sardar Mohammad Ansar Khan v. State of U.P. CMWP No. 8249 of 1990. decided on October 11. 1992. Allahabad Highcourt. Udai Shankar Singh v. Branch Manager. LIC. Bharwari. CMWP No. 3807 of 1993. https://www.aironline.in/legal- articles/The+Mimansa+Principles+of+Interpretation. https://www.aironline.in/legal-articles/The+Mimansa+Principles+ of+Interpretation-II. https://www.outlookindia.com/website/storv/from-the-ancient-to-the-modern/264730 and etc.)
18. «mi t, dtf m w wAt Wm mip/t, mv fd^m mW tft mm», `mi t', Ramdhari Singh Dinkar.
19. Constitution of India. Part XVII. Clause 343 (2). Ministry of Law and Justice. Government of India. 2020. It may also be noted that in only 54 countries English is both a de jure and a de facto official language. It is a de facto official language in Australia. New Zealand. the UK and the USA. https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/ List of countries and territories where English is an official language
20. Vilfredo Pareto discusses the existence of two types of elites: Governing elites and Non-governing elites. He postulates that «in actual societies. elites are those most adept at using the two modes of political rule. force and persuasion, and who usually enjoy important advantages such as inherited wealth and family connections». Gaetano Mosca says elites are an organized minority and that the masses are an unorganized majority. He divides the world into two group: Political class and Non-Political class. Mosca holds that elites have intellectual. moral. and material superiority that is highly esteemed and influential. John Higley. «Elite Theory and Elites», Handbook of Politics: State and Society in Global Perspective, Kevin T. Leicht. J. Craig Jenkins (eds.). New York: Springer-Verlag. 2010. pp. 160176.
21. Some characteristics of the people of the Indian subcontinent: «... the prickly sense of insecurity. the obsession with conspiracies. the desire to succeed. the lack of faith in the leadership (everyone is dwarfed at the side of Gandhi or Jinnah). the aggressive loyalty to a cause and by implication the need to assert a separate identity». (Akbar Ahmed. Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin. Routledge. 1997. p. 270)
22. Indo-Anglian Literature. Calcutta: Thacker. Spink and Co.. 1883. PDF. The author/compiler of this book identifies himself simply as «B. A». though this book has been attributed to Sir Edward Charles Buck in the Bibliographic information on the site <worldcat.org> «Edward Charles Buck, Sir». Likewise, «Buck, Edward Charles, b. 1838» has been mentioned as the main author of the book in the Bibliographic information of Hathi Trust Digital Library <hathitrust.org > However, there is an additional note also on the card: «By Sir Edward Buck, secretary to the Government of India». [sic] -Halkett & Laing». In the recent edition of the book issued by Palala Press (May 21. 2016) also the authorship has been attributed to Sir Edward Charles Buck (amazon.com).
23. «The Orientalist party consisted of the Hon. H. Shakespear, Messrs. H. Thoby Prinsep, James Prinsep, W. H. Macnaghten and T. C. C. Sutherland. the Secretary of the Committee. The Anglicists were Messrs. Bird. Saunders. Bushby, Trevelyan, and J. R. Colvin». Colonel W. F. B. Laurie. Sketches of Some Distinguished Anglo-Indians: (Second Series) Including Lord Macaulay's Great Minute on Education in India; With Anglo-Indian Anecdotes and Incidents. London: W. H. Allen. 1888. p. 165. PDF.
24. On the result of the introduction of Macaulayan education M Prabha writes: «What followed was a class not of physicists, chemists and mathematicians ... but a sect of grotesque apes who took to European classical learning. British history and writing in the English language. ... they fell headlong for the specious western mores and manners. Instead of imbibing Faraday and Newton they crammed the Bible and Milton. Several of them embraced Christianity or sailed to the west, turning their backs on their own people». (M. Prabha. The Waffle of the Toffs, New Delhi: OxfordIBH. 2000. p. 5)
25. ?????????????????? ??????????? ???????????????????????????? ??????? ??????? ????????-???????, ?????, ?????????, ???????, tyajet kularthe purusham gramasyarthe kulam tyajet gramam janapadasyarthe atmarthe prithivim tyajet (Mahabharata 1. 107. 32) renounce one person for the sake of the family. a family for the sake of village; village for the sake of country and even the [kingdom of] earth for one's own sake. The principle is valid even in the modern times as is clear from the following lines in the judgment pronounced by Kerala High Court in the WP(C).No. 35293 of 2018: «In every human relationship. there evolves an interest. In the competing rights. if not resolved through the legislation. it is a matter for judicial adjudication. The Court. therefore. has to balance those rights to uphold the interest of the dominant rather than the subservient interest. The dominant interest represents the larger interest and the subservient interest represents only individual interest. If the dominant interest is not allowed to prevail. subservient interest would march over the dominant interest resulting in chaos». (emphasis added) www.legitquest.com/case/fathima-thasneem-minor-and-other- v-the-state-of-kerala-and-others/1D9784
26. Patriarchy is a «[s]ocial system in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership. moral authority. social privilege and control of property. ... It is also the political. ideological. religious. and societal structure that places maleness above femaleness». (Emphasis added). https://www.igi- global.com/dictionarv/patriarchv/52625.
27. Arthur Symons. in his introduction to The Golden Threshold (1905), underlined «... in a sort of delicately evasive way. at a rare temperament. the temperament of a woman of the East. finding expression through a Western language and under partly Western influences. They do not express the whole of that temperament; but they express. I think, its essence; and there is an Eastern magic in them». https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Golden_Threshold/Introduction
28. Eighteen international varieties of English are currently listed in a popular software platform. MS Office.
29. This variety of English has been accepted by MS Office.
30. The status of English in India if it is an Indian language or a foreign language is ambiguous. While Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, considers it to be an Indian language, in order to impart teaching of English Literature EFLU considers it to be a foreign language but in the Linguistics/ ELT class-rooms in EFLU, English in India is considered to be a second language.
31. «Bhabatosh Chatterjee, John Keats: His Mind and Work, 1971; K R Chatterjee, Studies in Tennyson as Poet of Science, 1977; B Rajan, W. B. Yeats: A Critical Introduction, 1965; Ramesh Chandra Shah, Yeats: Last Poems: A Casebook, 1968 (wrongly attributed to Shah in place of Jon Stallworthy; Shah is not even a contributor to the book); J. Buje-Patil, Beneath the Axle-Tree, 1977; B Rajan, The Overwhelming Question, 1977; B Rajan (Editor), T. S. Eliot: A Study of His Writings by Several Hands, 1947; Rajnath, T.S. Eliot's Theory of Poetry, 1980».
32. Since Southey has not been prescribed there is no mention of his The Curse of Kehama, based on a Hindu myth. Tennyson's fifteen poems have been prescribed which largely deal with Greek myths like Arthur, Shallot, Maud or his melancholy but there is no mention of his «The Defence of Lucknow». Similarly, in the drama paper Dryden's All for Love has been prescribed in place of Aureng-Zebe with which Indian students can relate more.
33. Harivansh Rai Bachchan. W. B. Yeats and Occultism: A Study of His Works in Relation to Indian Lore, the Cabbala, Swedenborg, Boehme and Theosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965. Reissued by Samuel Weiser Inc., New York in1974 as W. B. Yeats and Occultism.
34. While serving the Dept of English, University of Allahabad, H R Bachchan had gone to Cambridge to pursue his M Litt at Cambridge University. For details one may refer to the third volume of Bachchan's autobiography, Basere se Door (Hindi, New Delhi: Rajpal, 1978).
35. This book was also published under the same title by Humanities Press, Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1983.
36. The publications of the survey include the following information: Name of the language, Brief history, Geographical region where the language is spoken, Short bibliography, Sample oral songs with translation, Sample oral stories with translation, Colour terms, Relational terms and the Terms for time and space. For scheduled languages, the survey also provides a broad cultural overview of each language.
37. «In the first group, by the apurvata mark we come to know that the subject discussed is not known from any other source and is known from this text alone. upapatti or logically reasoned presentation helps us know that the subject is firmly established without being contradicted/rescinded. The above two marks become meaningful only if the subject discussed/delineated bears a specific fruit/benefit (phalam). In the absence of this specific fruit (found mentioned in the text under consideration) the former two marks are rendered redundant. Thus, is explained the first group. It is possible sometimes that a text is seen to discuss several topics and they appear to be supported by reasoned presentation and the benefit too is specified clearly. In such a situation it becomes impossible to ascertain on firm grounds that such and such is the purport of the text. Here lies the utility of the second group. Among the remaining three marks (constituting the second group) even one would be sufficient to determine the purport. Thus, by noticing the upakrama-upasamhara mark, or by observing the abhyasa mark or by discerning the eulogical indicator one can determine the purport of the text.
In this way the particular topic discussed in the context of the text becomes determined as not a subsidiary of any other topic but enjoying the status of being the main topic». (https://adbhutam.wordpress.com/ 2012/10/13/%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A4% E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B2 %E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF-3/)
38. ???????????????? ?????????????????????? ??????????(?????????????)
39. One feature of coloniality is also to teach the colonies their own texts in the colonialist's language.
40. Rajiv Malhotra & Satyanarayana Dasa Babaji. Sanskrit Non-Translatables: The Importance of Sanskritizing English. Noida: Amaryllis & Harper Collins India, 2020. Also see Rajiv Malhotra. Being Different: An Indian Challenge to Western Universalism, Noida: Harper Collins, 2013.
41. Sudhir Kumar is Professor of English, Punjab University, Chandigarh. Kindly see: Sudhir Kumar. «Reflections on Deen Dayal Upadhyaya's Vision of Chiti and Dharma-Centric Indian Culture», Madhya Bharati: Research Journal of Humanities and Social sciences, No 75, July-Dec 2018, pp. 292-313.
42. In case of India, The National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) was instituted in 1994 to assess and accredit the Higher Educational Institutions (HEI) to derive an understanding of the `Quality Status' of the institution. NAAC evaluates the institutions for its conformance to the standards of quality in terms of its performance related to the educational processes and outcomes, curriculum coverage, teaching-learning processes, faculty, research, infrastructure, learning resources, organisation, governance, financial well-being and student services. QS World University Rankings® has been assessing universities and Colleges on several parameters including research publications and their citations since their inception in 2004. Almost the same parameters were adopted to measure the ranking of the ranking of the top universities in the BRICS nations in 2013. Scopus database was being used to measure the quality of research. In order to meet the requirements under Washington Accord the National Board of Accreditation (NBA), India was initially established by the AICTE (All India Council of Technical Education) in 1994. It assesses the qualitative competence of the programmes offered by educational institution from diploma level to postgraduate level in engineering and technology, management, pharmacy, architecture and related disciplines, which are approved by AICTE.
43. QS World University Rankings and the Times Higher Education World University Rankings are released annually in September. They also release additional rankings, dedicated to particular subjects and regions, throughout the year.
44. «The UGC-CARE List ... includes journals indexed in Scopus and / or Web of Science». Consortium for Academic Research and Ethics: CARE, New Delhi: University Grants Commission, 2019, p. 6, PDF.
45. Academic Keys; BazHum, Caspur, CEEOL, CEJSH, Deutsche Zentralbibliothek fur Medizin ZB MED; Directory of Open Access Journals DOAJ; DOAJ, EBSCO, Electronic Journals Library; EMBASE, European Reference Index for the Humanities and the Social Sciences ERIH PLUS, Expanded Academic ASAP, Genamics Journal Seek, Google Scholar; Hinari, Index Copernicus and ERIHPLUS, Index Copernicus IC; Index Copernicus; Information Matrix for the Analysis of Journals MIAR; Journals' International Compliance Index; Linguistic Bibliography; Linguistik Portal für Sprachwissenschaft; MedLine, Norwegian Register for Scientific Journals, OCLC WorldCat; Open Academic Journals Indexing; OpenAIRE; Open J Gate, PubMed, Pol-Index; Portal on Central Eastern and Balkan Europe; Primo Central, Pro Quest, Publons; ResearchBible; Russian State Digital Library; SCIRUS, SIIC databases, SCOLOAR, Scribd; Series and Publishers, Staatsund UniversitätsBibliothek Hamburg and ERIH PLUS; Summon by Serial Solutions, The Linguist List; Ulrich's Web; Ulrich's International Periodical Directory, Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig; Zenodo etc. Many of these work in highly specialised domains.
Ïîäîáíûå äîêóìåíòû
Development of guidelines for students of the fifth year of practice teaching with the English language. Definition of reading, writing and speaking skills, socio-cultural component. Research issues in linguistics, literary and educational studies.
ìåòîäè÷êà [433,9 K], äîáàâëåí 18.01.2012The reasons of importance of studying of English. Use of English in communication. Need for knowledge of English during travel, dialogue with foreigners, at information search on the Internet. Studying English in Russia is as one of the major subjects.
ðåôåðàò [16,5 K], äîáàâëåí 29.08.2013Analysis and description of polynational options of English. Different the concepts "version" and "option" of English. Studying of the main problems of loans of a foreign-language element. consideration of a territorial variation of English in Australia.
êóðñîâàÿ ðàáîòà [52,5 K], äîáàâëåí 08.04.2016Traditional periodization of historical stages of progress of English language. Old and middle English, the modern period. The Vocabulary of the old English language. Old English Manuscripts, Poetry and Alphabets. Borrowings in the Old English language.
ïðåçåíòàöèÿ [281,2 K], äîáàâëåí 27.03.2014Today it is quite evident that everyone should know at least one foreign language. Knowing one or more foreign languages makes it possible to get acquainted with different ways of thinking, to understand a new civilisation.
òîïèê [5,4 K], äîáàâëåí 13.05.2002The Origin of Black English. Development of Pidgin and Creole. Differences of Black English and Standard English, British English and British Black English. African American Vernacular English and its use in teaching process. Linguistic Aspects.
äèïëîìíàÿ ðàáîòà [64,6 K], äîáàâëåí 02.11.2008Theories of discourse as theories of gender: discourse analysis in language and gender studies. Belles-letters style as one of the functional styles of literary standard of the English language. Gender discourse in the tales of the three languages.
äèïëîìíàÿ ðàáîòà [3,6 M], äîáàâëåí 05.12.2013Spread in the world of English as a native and first spoken. The origins of the English from the invading Germanic tribes in Britain in the 5th century and up today, the change in pronunciation. English-speaking countries of the world; American English.
ïðåçåíòàöèÿ [7,1 M], äîáàâëåí 09.03.2015Lexical and grammatical differences between American English and British English. Sound system, voiced and unvoiced consonants, the American R. Americans are Ruining English. American English is very corrupting. A language that doesn’t change is dead.
äèïëîìíàÿ ðàáîòà [52,2 K], äîáàâëåí 21.07.2009The Evolution of English. Vowels and current English. Kinds of Sound Change. Causes of sound change. The Phoneme and Differing transcriptions. Early modern English pronunciation and spelling. Vowel changes in Middle English and Early New English.
äèïëîìíàÿ ðàáîòà [319,1 K], äîáàâëåí 20.01.2015
