Contemporary methods of second language research in the high school

Introduction. Nowadays second language learning occurs all over the world for a variety of reasons such as immigration, the demands of commerce and science, and the requirements of education. Learning another language may be the most ubiquitous of human intellectual activities after the acquisition of the mother tongue. It is therefore not surprising that research in this field has become one of the exciting frontiers of cognitive science.

Purpose. The purpose of this study is the investigation of the process of carrying out research in second language acquisition.

Methods. Mixed methodology was applied for the study. We have used the methods of studying and analysis of theoretical literature and practical manuals on the problem; the methods of observation and description; introspective methods, the heuristic approach, the methods of formalization, argumentation and verification.

Results. The findings revealed that for taking an example of the use of group studies in descriptive research, a researcher may be interested in describing the various types of motivation found in a second language learner group in order to see if it is related to achievement. Qualitative methods originally developed from the methodologies of field anthropologists and sociologists concerned with studying human behavior within the context in which that behavior would occur naturally and in which the role of the researcher would not affect the normal behavior of the subjects. These methods attempted to present the data from the perspective of the subjects or observed groups. distinctive feature of ethnographic work is comparison across multiple data sources, commonly known as «triangulation». Although varying by researchers' underlying epistemological stance and training, data analysis tends to be distinguished by an inductive process initiated in the course of data collection. The essential difference between descriptive and experimental research is that descriptive research can be either synthetic or analytic in its approach to the second language phenomena being studied, while experimental research must be analytic.

Originality. Thus, most of the research studies investigating the application of action research, case-study research; ethnographic research methods focus on the advantages of their use. Students ' reaction to this methods and strategies is the important feedback on what they percei ve to be more effective for them. Besides, whether or not the contextual boundaries can be easily drawn, case study is contextual study, unfolding over time and in real settings. Often the phenomena of interest become visible as the case study proceeds; surprising facts come to light and demand attention. second language study research

Conclusion. The methods employed in second language research necessarily draw on those that had already been designed, established, and refined elsewhere among other data-driven disciplines. The case study approach is used where the investigator is interested in describing some aspect of the second language performance or development of one or more subjects as individuals. Both qualitative and descriptive researches are concerned with providing descriptions of phenomena that occur naturally, without the intervention of an experiment or an artificially contrived treatment. We should consider the prevalent methods in second language research. Although Ethnographic /Qualitative and Case Study research methods and Quantitative research methods draw on the classical and fundamental research paradigms, others, such as Classroom and Action research, represent adaptations of these methods to narrow and specific contexts of second language teaching. Then it is critical to find out the ways to implement innovative research methods of the second language acquisition.

Key words: contemporary methods of research; ethnographic method; quantitative method; qualitative method; introspective methods of research; the methods of formalization; high school; second language.

Анотація

Акцентовано на тому, що проблема методології в загальному мовознавстві є однією з ключових проблем даної науки. Наголошено, що саме методи дослідження мови у вищих навчальних закладах постійно змінюються і вдосконалюються. Доведено, що оскільки будь-яка галузь наукового пізнання повинна мати як об'єкт і предмет вивчення, так і дослідницькі методи, то лінгвістика протягом історії свого розвитку створює власні, тобто спеціальні методи, тому зміна наукової парадигми супроводжується відкриттям нового методу дослідження. Установлено, що кожен метод виділяє такий аспект мови як об'єкт дослідження, який визначається найважливішим у цій теорії мови. Згрупувати сучасні методи дослідження мови є важливим етапом дослідження лінгвістики.

Ключові слова: сучасні методи дослідження; етнографічний метод; кількісний метод; якісний метод; інтроспективні методи дослідження; методи формалізації; вища школа; друга мова.

Introduction

Second language learning occurs all over the world for a variety of reasons such as immigration, the demands of commerce and science, and the requirements of education. Learning another language may be the most ubiquitous of human intellectual activities after the acquisition of the mother tongue. It is therefore not surprising that research in this field has become one of the exciting frontiers of cognitive science.

Problem statement

Throughout the history of learning another language many research projects and experiments have been carried out to shed light on how second languages are learned and used. In the 1950s when applied linguistics arrived on the scene as a formal discipline, it was a latecomer among the human sciences, such as anthropology, behavioural sciences, educational theory, psychology, sociology, and their numerous subdomains, such as the sociology of learning. Thus, applied linguistics and its attendant research into second language processes had the advantage (or disadvantage, depending on the point of view) of the scientific research paradigms and methods developed for the purposes of gathering knowledge in other human disciplines. Although at the present several research methodologies are widely employed in applied linguistics and second language learning, none is specifically unique or was specifically developed for language studies.

Analysis of recent researches

Applicability of a wide range of innovative contemporary methods has become a subject of investigation of many scientists both in Ukraine and abroad. The problems of research methods have been investigated by M. P. Kochergan, O. O. Selivanova, A. E. Kibrik, V. I. Karaban, A. P. R. Howatt, A. Mackey, S. M. Gass and others. Many good examples of these can be found in the famous book by Howatt A. P. R. (A History of English Language Teaching, Oxford University Press, 1984/2004), who describes many studies conducted in the early 20th century on the teaching and learning of English in various parts of the world.

The purpose of the study is the investigation of the process of carrying out research in second language acquisition.

The objectives of the study are: to point out ethnographic methods of second language research; to characterize case study methods of research; to investigate qualitative and quantitative research designs; to describe classroom research; to examine descriptive research; to summarize and interpret the results of the research.

Research study description

Research is the formalization of natural processes we all carry out from birth in dealing with the environment. It involves curiosity about some phenomenon and the posing of testable questions about relationships among observed phenomena. Research differs from common sense because it is planned, systematic investigation. Its theories are testable and falsifiable and it attempts to study phenomena through careful description and identification, sometimes controlling and manipulating phenomena in order to study them in isolation.

Research concerns obtaining knowledge

Knowledge can come from four different sources: belief, authority, a priori hypotheses or theories, and empirical evidence. Scientific research is concerned with discovering knowledge from the last two sources [6, p. 85].

Because of the complexity of second language acquisition, it is not possible to investigate it from any single perspective. Research in second language varies according to the circumstances under which the research is conducted; the methodology used in the research; the tools used to study second language.

Circumstances vary firstly in relation to the context in which second language acquisition is taking place. Research on language acquisition taking place in natural environments will be different from that conducted in the classroom. Secondly, the circumstances will also vary depending on whether the language being learned is a second or a foreign language. Thirdly, they may vary according to the age and other characteristics of the learners.

There is no one preferred research approach for the study of all second language acquisition phenomena. Research methodologies may be determined by such factors as the philosophy of the researcher, the theory motivating the research, and objective factors such as the conditions under which the research is being conducted and the question being investigated.

Information on second language acquisition may be gathered through a variety of means such as observation, testing, interviews, and instrumentation. Here too, the manner in which data are gathered will vary.

The study of the phenomena associated with second language learning must necessarily be multifaceted and multidisciplinary, taking account of knowledge and research methodologies from areas such as linguistics, anthropology, psychology, sociology, education, and others. Each of these disciplines can contribute further insights into the phenomenology of second language acquisition. Furthermore, each of these areas provides the researcher with different perspectives, goals, and tools for studying the phenomena of second language learning. These different disciplines and the wide range of research methodologies represented in these areas can provide a more complete picture of second language acquisition.

Because of the complexity of second language acquisition itself and the variety of ways in which it may be studied, it would be useful to have a coherent and consistent set of characteristics with which to categorize the possible approaches, objectives, designs, and data-gathering methods used in this field. Each research method has a foundational basis in paradigmatic procedures and logical progression. The types of hypotheses researchers set out to test determines the data gathering tools and, therefore, the types of analysis that can be applied to particular data. For instance, Quantitative research methods are crucially distinct from Qualitative because quantitative data is very difficult to gather naturalistically [5, p. 24].

The means of data analysis fundamentally depends of the type of data gathering methods and the kinds of the data that are valued. For instance, while individuals' personal histories and narratives can be valued in one domain of research, quantitative data may be believed more valid and generalizable in another. In many cases, the methods for collecting data can be combined, resulting in dual or triple approaches to research design. In some disciplines, such as psychology, experimental data is considered to be of great merit, and in anthropology, the data gathered in naturally occurring contexts is probably considered to have the highest credibility.

Numerous methods for data gathering and analysis have become recognized in social sciences and, by extension, in second language research. However, practically in all cases, the type of collected data determines the applicable methods of analysis. The qualitative data gathered from relatively large population samples in experiments or naturalistically can be analyzed numerically and/or statistically, but the information obtained in a small number of representative cases requires qualitative and/or interpretive analytical research procedures. Each has a number of advantages and disadvantages, and strengths and flaws, and each is strongly preferred or dispreferred by particular groups of or individual researchers in second language processes. There are, of course, exceptions among researchers, and it is possible to find those who conduct qualitative and quantitative studies but they are infrequent. In this regard, an individual's belief in the validity and merits of particular research methods, the types of data considered to be representative and analyzable, and the methods of by which the data can be analyzed can be a matter of religion.

For this reason, the methods employed in second language research necessarily draw on those that had already been designed, established, and refined elsewhere among other data- driven disciplines. In the research in social and behavioral sciences, all methods of empirical data gathering and, by outcome, all collected data is social in nature and fundamentally depends on the processes and methods by which it is gathered, interpreted, and used. The canonical methods of data gathering find a large number of classifications, depending on the disciplines where they were designed and developed [9, p. 105-106]. For example, the methods commonly called ethnography and participant observation were originally created in anthropology, survey-based and experimental research have long served the needs of psychology and the social sciences, and archival research methods have benefited history and political science.

Each research method has a foundational basis in paradigmatic procedures and logical progression. The types of hypotheses researchers set out to test determines the data gathering tools and, therefore, the types of analysis that can be applied to particular data. For instance, Quantitative research methods are crucially distinct from Qualitative because quantitative data is very difficult to gather naturalistically.

The means of data analysis fundamentally depends of the type of data gathering methods and the kinds of the data that are valued. For instance, while individuals' personal histories and narratives can be valued in one domain of research, quantitative data may be believed more valid and generalizable in another. In many cases, the methods for collecting data can be combined, resulting in dual or triple approaches to research design. In some disciplines, such as psychology, experimental data is considered to be of great merit, and in anthropology, the data gathered in naturally occurring contexts is probably considered to have the highest credibility.

Numerous methods for data gathering and analysis have become recognized in social sciences and, by extension, in second language research. However, practically in all cases, the type of collected data determines the applicable methods of analysis. The qualitative data gathered from relatively large population samples in experiments or naturalistically can be analyzed numerically and/or statistically, but the information obtained in a small number of representative cases requires qualitative and/or interpretive analytical research procedures. Each has a number of advantages and disadvantages, and strengths and flaws, and each is strongly preferred or dispreferred by particular groups of or individual researchers in second language processes. There are, of course, exceptions among researchers, and it is possible to find those who conduct qualitative and quantitative studies but they are infrequent. In this regard, an individual's belief in the validity and merits of particular research methods, the types of data considered to be representative and analyzable, and the methods of by which the data can be analyzed can be a matter of religion [9, p. 119].

Hence, we should consider the prevalent methods in second language research. Although Ethnographic/Qualitative and Case Study research methods and Quantitative research methods draw on the classical and fundamental research paradigms, others, such as Classroom and Action research, represent adaptations of these methods to narrow and specific contexts of second language teaching.

Ethnographies typically focus on small societies or small bounded units (e.g., a town) within broader social units. Therefore, although not all case studies arc ethnographic or even qualitative, all ethnographic research involves case study. Because of the particularity of case study, ethnographers disagree on the extent to which it is feasible or desirable to generalize from ethnographic findings [3, p. 189]. Although some ethnographers resist codification of their procedures, it can be said that the hallmark of «classical» ethnographic methodology is participant observation. This traditionally has meant residing or spending considerable lengths of time interacting with people in everyday naturalistic settings, observing and recording their activities in extensive field notes, and interviewing and conversing with them to learn their perspectives, attitudes, beliefs, and values.

A major portion of the participant observer's work is to generate a descriptive corpus of field notes as a contemporaneous record of events and experiences as they unfold. Data are ideally gathered from most participants - or «informants'» - in the setting, but may be chosen with random samples or based on individuals' particular knowledge, skills, and insights. Key informants work most closely with the ethnographer. Ethnographers typically conduct informal interviews with informants in the setting entailing open-ended questions that evolve in situ. More formal interviews, consisting of a schedule of questions, may be conducted as the research continues. Often formal interviews arc audio-recorded and transcribed. Ethnography may incorporate other field methods including life histories, narrative analysis, photography and videotape, archaeological data, written documents, or other data documenting historical trends, and surveys. Some include studies of natural language infield methods [4, p. 202].

Another distinctive feature of ethnographic work is comparison across multiple data sources, commonly known as «triangulation». Although varying by researchers' underlying epistemological stance and training, data analysis tends to be distinguished by an inductive process initiated in the course of data collection. Data are ultimately organized into patterns, categories, or themes that arc compared against negative or disconfirming data and, thus, evolve as data collection proceeds. Often this process entails uncovering the implicit «common-sense» socio-cultural knowledge, beliefs, and practices of participants. In later stages of analysis and writing, meaning is attached to the data by theorizing the meaning of and relationships among categories.

Both qualitative and descriptive researches are concerned with providing descriptions of phenomena that occur naturally, without the intervention of an experiment or an artificially contrived treatment. While it is true that both types of research are concerned with description, they approach research from different perspectives.

Qualitative research is heuristic and not deductive since few, if any, decisions regarding research questions or data are made before the research begins. In addition, ethnographic methodologies such as cognitive anthropology, ethnography of communication, constitutive ethnography, and others require that the research have a synthetic/holistic perspective of the research area or question in order to gather as much information as possible and to avoid any manipulation or interference in the research context. Some forms of qualitative research narrow the focus of the research scope as the research progresses, but this is viewed as an organic development dictated by the research in progress and not by a predetermined focus or hypothesis.

Descriptive research can be heuristic or deductive. While technically, qualitative research is also concerned with description, descriptive research as a type or category of research refers to investigation, which utilizes already existing data or non-experimental research with a preconceived hypothesis. A descriptive study might describe an aspect of second language acquisition from a more synthetic perspective or might focus on the description of a specific constituent of the process, such as on the acquisition of a particular language structure or on one particular language learning behavior to the exclusion of others. That is, in a descriptive study the researchers begin with general questions in mind about the phenomenon they are studying or with more specific questions and with a specific focus. Because the questions are decided in advance, the research only focuses on certain aspects of the possible data available in the language learning context being described [8, p. 307].

It has been claimed by some research methodologists that descriptive research may be distinguished from qualitative research by the kind of data analysis that is carried out. That is, descriptive research will be quantitative while qualitative research is not. This distinction is certainly not true for language acquisition qualitative research in which both qualitative and quantitative elements may be present. Quantification of data takes place in qualitative research only after data of a general nature have been collected and perhaps categorized. A classic example of a combination of approaches is found in Brown in which many procedures typically found in qualitative research, such as observation, tape recording, and manual transcription were used. The data were then analyzed first qualitatively and then quantitatively in terms of frequency orders and the mean length of utterances. Brown's study of three children later formed the basis for several studies on the acquisition of grammatical morphemes by adult and child second language learners. [2, p. 135] A descriptive case study might provide an in-depth linguistic analysis of the development of some aspect of grammatical ability with a second language learner, while an ethnographic study might provide quantitative analysis in the form of frequency of occurrence of an observed second language phenomenon.

The essential difference between descriptive and experimental research is that descriptive research can be either synthetic or analytic in its approach to the second language phenomena being studied, while experimental research must be analytic. In addition, descriptive research may be conducted for heuristic reasons, for example, to find out more about a particular second language phenomenon, or to attempt to test an a-priori hypothesis. Both types of research can be hypothesis-driven, in that the researcher starts out with a theory or a specific research question [7, p. 318].

An equally important distinction between descriptive and experimental research is that in descriptive research no manipulation of naturally occurring phenomena occurs, while in experimental research, manipulation and control become important measures of both internal and external validity. Correlation and multivariate analysis, while technically not research methodologies so much as different ways of manipulating data, allow us to «research» different configurations or combinations of second language data and may be considered forms of descriptive research since they deal with already existing data.

Qualitative methods originally developed from the methodologies of field anthropologists and sociologists concerned with studying human behavior within the context in which that behavior would occur naturally and in which the role of the researcher would not affect the normal behavior of the subjects. These methods attempted to present the data from the perspective of the subjects or observed groups, so that the cultural and intellectual biases of the researcher did not distort the collection, interpretation, or presentation of the data. When ethnographic methods were developed, anthropologists and sociologists were concerned primarily with describing observable behaviors and activities within their natural context and describing these in their entirety from beginning to end. They avoided describing only certain selected aspects of behavior because the act of selection would be considered a distortion of nature. Unlike descriptive research, qualitative research avoids establishing research questions or hypotheses, or identifying, a priori, any variable, which will become the focus of the research.

The case study approach is used where the investigator is interested in describing some aspect of the second language performance or development of one or more subjects as individuals, because it is believed that individual performance will be more revealing than studying large groups of subjects. If, for example, we are interested in tracing in detail the development of a particular subset of linguistic forms for a learner, the case study approach is more likely to provide an in-depth and detailed description of how these forms develop in individuals. Since we know that each individual may have their own idiosyncratic pathway to developing language competence, case studies are also able to show how the development of individual language acquirers may be different from that described for groups [4, p. 76].

Studies which utilize groups of subjects may be used in both descriptive and experimental research. The important difference is that in descriptive work, the groups are already formed or exist in natural contexts while in experimental research, these groups are carefully structured or selected so that they can be said to represent the general population of second language learners.

To take an example of the use of group studies in descriptive research, a researcher may be interested in describing the various types of motivation found in a second language learner group in order to see if it is related to achievement. Gathering the data for this study could be accomplished in a number of ways: surveys, questionnaires, interviews, and so on. Because the research begins with a particular focus or hypothesis, the scope of the data which are gathered is limited. On the other hand, in qualitative research, the kind of data gathered would be less focused because the goals of the research are less defined.

Cases are specific persons, places, or events that are interesting and worthy of intensive study. The case is a real-life entity that operates in a specific time and place. Whether or not the contextual boundaries can be easily drawn, case study is contextual study, unfolding over time and in real settings. Often the phenomena of interest become visible as the case study proceeds; surprising facts come to light and demand attention.

Case studies have often been regarded as somewhat marginal compared to more experimentally controlled types of study. The methods named «case studies» has played a crucial role in shaping our field, and that their importance as ways of doing research is likely to increase over the near term, as the importance of contextual analysis is realized more and more.

Action research is simply a form of self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in order to improve the rationality and jus Lice of their own practices, their understanding of these practices and the situations in which the practices are carried out [1, p. 82]. Thus, other central characteristics of action research are the enhancement of practice, the development of new theoretical understandings, and the introduction of change into the social enterprise. Although not exactly new, action research is still emerging as a branch of research in education generally and is now gaining growing currency in the field of English Language teaching, its scope, however, extends well beyond these fields to industry, health, and community settings.

Conclusion

The methods employed in second language research necessarily draw on those that had already been designed, established, and refined elsewhere among other data-driven disciplines. The case study approach is used where the investigator is interested in describing some aspect of the second language performance or development of one or more subjects as individuals. Both qualitative and descriptive researches are concerned with providing descriptions of phenomena that occur naturally, without the intervention of an experiment or an artificially contrived treatment. We should consider the prevalent methods in second language research. Although Ethnographic/Qualitative and Case Study research methods and Quantitative research methods draw on the classical and fundamental research paradigms, others, such as Classroom and Action research, represent adaptations of these methods to narrow and specific contexts of second language teaching. Then it is critical to find out the ways to implement innovative research methods of the second language acquisition.

Future areas of research. The findings of this study would be relevant to teachers, students, university administrations, and Ministry of Education. Effective innovative teaching methods improve the performance and learning of university students. The future areas of research should be focused on the ways of improvement the discourse between instructors and university administrations concerning application the effective research methods in the high school.

References

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2. Brown, J. D. (1988). Understanding research in second language learning: A teacher's guide to statistics and research design. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press (in Engl.)

3. Hinkel, E. (2005). Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (in Engl.)

4. Howatt, A. P. R., & Widdowson, H. G. (1984). A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford University Press: Language Arts & Disciplines (in Engl.)

5. Kibrik, A. E. (2003). Constants and Variables of Language. SPb: Alteya (in Russ.)

6. Kochergan, M. P. (2006). Introduction into Linguistics. Kyiv: Academia (in Ukr.)

7. Mackey, A., & Susan, M. Gass. (2005). Second Language Research. Methodology and Design. London. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (in Engl.)

8. Porte, G. K. (2002). Appraising research in second language learning: A practical approach to critical analysis of quantitative research. Amsterdam: Benjamins (in Engl.)

9. Seliger, H. W., & Shohamy, E. G. (1989). Second language research methods. Oxford University Press - Foreign Language Study (in Engl.)

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