Prosodic peculiarities of repetition as a rhetorical device in public speech

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Prosodic peculiarities of repetition as a rhetorical device in public speech

В статті розглядаються особливості інтонаційного оформлення окремих елементів такого риторичного прийому як повтор на матеріалі аудіо записів п'єс Шекспіра в хронології, а саме риторичні питання, що належать до висловлень своєрідної інтерогативної модальності. В статті йдеться про результати дослідження інваріантні риси просодії питального речення в драматичному дискурсі в хронологічному плані. Розглянуто такий засіб емоційного підсилення як повтор. В публічному виступі повтор слугує засобом вираження особливого різновиду інформації - переконуючої, що несе в собі багатий емоційно-інтонаційний зміст. За допомогою повтору мовець заглиблює смисловий бік промови та підсилює емоційний вплив. Було проаналізовано також синтаксичний паралелізм, який реалізується в сполученні повторів синтаксичних конструкцій та різноманітних інтенсифікаторів, що перцептивно сприймається як ритмічність. Синтаксичний паралелізм однотипних питань або речень підсилюється та корелюється з ідентичним просодичним контуром інтонаційних груп. Для досягнення емоційного ефекту актори при виконанні синтаксично паралельних питальних конструкцій на другому та третьому питанні можуть порушувати правило інтонаційного оформлення питання, користуючись нормативною шкалою. Або, навпаки, дотримуватись нормативних інтонаційних контурів, оформляти їх за канонічним правилом.

Ключові слова: повтор, інваріант, риторічне питання, інтерогатив, рекурентний повтор, низхідна шкала.

The article deals with the features of intonation design of individual elements of such a rhetorical technique as repetition on the material of audio recordings of Shakespeare's plays in chronology, namely rhetorical questions related to statements of a peculiar interogative modality. The article deals with the results of the study of invariant features of prosody of a question sentence in dramatic discourse in chronological terms. Such a means of emotional reinforcement as repetition is considered. In a public speech, repetition serves as a means of expressing a special kind of information - convincing, carrying a rich emotional and intonation content. With the help of repetition, the speaker delves into the semantic side of speech and increases the emotional impact. We also analyzed syntactic parallelism, which is implemented in the combination of repetitions of syntactic constructions and various intensifiers, which is perceived as rhythmicity. Syntactic parallelism of similar questions or sentences is enhanced and correlated with the identical prosodic contour of intonation groups. To achieve an emotional effect, actors can violate the rule of intonation design of the question when performing syntactically parallel question constructions on the second and third questions, using the normative scale. Or, on the contrary, adhere to the normative intonation contours, formalize them according to the canonical rule.

Keywords: repeat, invariant, rhetorical question, interogative, recurrent repeat, descending scale.

В статье рассматриваются особенности интонационного оформления отдельных элементов такого риторического приема как повтор на материале аудиозаписей пьес Шекспира в хронологии, а именно риторические вопросы, относящиеся к высказываниям своеобразной интерогативнои модальности. В статье говорится о результатах исследования инвариантные черты просодии вопросительного предложения в драматическом дискурсе в хронологическом плане. Рассмотрено такое средство эмоционального усиления как повтор. В публичном выступлении повтор служит средством выражения особой разновидности информации - убеждающей, что несет в себе богатый эмоциональноинтонационный смысл. С помощью повтора говорящий углубляет смысловой сторону речи и усиливает эмоциональное воздействие. Был проанализирован также синтаксический параллелизм, который реализуется в сочетании с повтором синтаксических конструкций и различных интенсификаторов, что перцептивно воспринимается как ритмичность. Синтаксический параллелизм однотипных вопросов или предложений усиливается и коррелирует с идентичным просодической контуром интонационных групп. Для достижения эмоционального эффекта актеры при презентации синтаксически параллельных вопросительных конструкций на втором и третьем вопросе могут нарушать правило интонационного оформления вопроса, или, наоборот, придерживаться нормативных интонационных контуров, оформлять их по каноническим правилам.

Ключевые слова: повтор, инвариант, риторический вопрос, интерогатив, рекуррентный повтор, нисходящая шкала.

The achievements of experimental-phonetic studies are increasingly used in such disciplines as phonology and rhetoric (Artyukhov A. A., Bishuk G. V. 2000, Georgieva N. Y. 2005, Glushko E. V. 1994, Bloch N. Ya., Velikaya E. V., Verbich N. S. 2011). However, insufficient attention is paid to the analysis of the prosody of dramatic discourse in terms of comparative studies in general and diachronic comparisons in particular. The interest in exploring the variability of prosodic conversions in speech is compounded by the growing demand for information on the peculiarities of spoken English. All this sharpens the attention of linguistic researchers to the need for a deep and careful diachronic analysis of the prosodic features of audio recordings of different historical periods.

One of the current trends of modern linguistic science is the experimental-phonetic study of the intonation. It appears to be the means of purposeful coding of information (O. R. Valigura, A. A. Kalita, L. I. Prokopova, O. I. Steriopolo, D. Brazil, G. Brown, A. Gruttenden), influencing the addressee (A. Y. Bagmut, L. G. Belychenko, L. V. Bondarko, M. P. Dvorzhetska, L. O. Kanter, D. L. Bolinger, J. Laver), expression of emotions (R. Kingdon). At the same time, little attention was paid to substantiating the diachronic approach of studying the prosodic parameters of speech.

One of the practical ways to solving the problem of finding and fixing precise parameters which give evidence and proof of phonetic changes within time is comparing the oldest possible recordings made at the beginning of the era of radio with the later ones. Chronologically these recordings may be found within approximately the last eighty years. The latest phonetic experimental investigations have been conducted in the sphere of radio drama (K. V. Lysenko 2019), where the researcher studied audio recordings of classical masterpieces made as early as 1930-1940 examining and comparing them with similar recordings made later. Modern computer programs made it possible to conduct the most precise measurings of the main prosodic parameters.

So one of the actual problems is the theoretical substantiation and practical development of various aspects of the prosodic organization of dramatic works in the realizations of different performers in comparative aspect and in diachrony. In order to typify prosodic features of a particular type of speech in a separate period of time, it is necessary not only to understand the variational differences of phonetic-intonational speech, but, more importantly, to examine their invariant, unchangeable features in chronological terms. An intonation invariant should be understood as an abstract model derived from the most frequency characteristics realized in different linguistic conditions and reflect the intonation specificity of a particular language. phonetic intonation linguistic

We have investigated interrogative questions from W. Shakespeare's drama texts. Among the large number of interrogative sentences general, special and alternative questions have the highest frequency within the analyzed discourse of dramatic radio play. These communicative-pragmatic types of utterances were chosen for detailed auditory and instrumental analysis. Among the most effective means of emotional influence and expressiveness in public speaking, as we know, are rhetorical questions related to the expressions of interogative modality. These are non-literal interrogative statements, in which, on the background of the formal realization of the category of interogativity, expressive intensity of the speaker is formed. A rhetorical question is a statement or objection, skillfully transformed into a formally expressed interogative, with no expressed desire to receive an answer directly. Rhetorical questions may contain an indirect answer to a question, a desire to intrigue, and so on. Such a question does not imply an answer - as a rule, the answer is contained in the question itself and is posed not for the purpose of answering, but rather for the purpose of aphoristic generalization of a known or obvious thought. In a dramatic work, the rhetorical question is sometimes used as a means of engaging in dialogue with an imaginary interlocutor. Most often, rhetorical questions are used when the answer is obvious to the audience and the speaker only needs to update it to draw attention, such as:

Is it possible a cur can lend three thousand ducats?, or when there is no answer at all. It is intended to evoke a certain illusion of conversation, dialogue. It is also inherent in an epic speech, for example:

What, weep you when you but behold our Caesar's vesture wounded? We examined the peculiarities of quasi-spontaneous public speeches from Shakespeare's plays, recorded on radio in different periods of time. We have located five variants of the corresponding entries, the texts of which are completely identical. These are records of Mercury Theater (1938-1948), Living Shakespeare series (1962), Archangel complete collection, Oregon festival and BBC. The audio recordings analysed will be referred to as MT, LSS, ARCH, OREG and BBC respectively.

The image of Brutus is one of the most controversial and tragic ones in Shakespeare's play "Julius Caesar". He is known to have been Caesar's favorite, his disciple and follower. Therefore, the involvement of Brutus in the murder of his idol and teacher is a historical and textbook example of betrayal. Brutus, being an experienced orator, seems to send the audience into trance with his specific partial repetitions of structurally similar questions, semantically different in character.

Listeners are affected by the rhythmicality of his speech, since repetition as a rhetorical device plays a significant role here. This increases the potential for expressiveness and leads to the creation of communicative pragmatic and stylistic effects. It is widely used in various functional styles. One should distinguish between such varieties of syntactic repetition as repetition of syntactic constructions or syntactic parallelism, anaphor, epiphor, annular repetition, polysyndeton, and syntactic convergence. In public speaking, repetition serves as a means of underlining a special kind of information - a convincing one, carrying a rich emotional-intonational content. Therefore, through repetition, the speaker deepens the semantic side of speech, highlights this or that idea, emphasizes the

most important thoughts, enhances emotional impact. We may find different kinds of repetitions - syntactic constructs as a whole and individual components of a syntactic construction. Any repetitive elements of a sentence or a repetition of the whole sentence give special rhythms to speech, and the repetition of a rhetorical question is a special emotionally influential element. The stylistic potential of repetition has led to its widespread use in various functional styles. According to I. Arnold, one should distinguish between such varieties of syntactic repetition as repetition of syntactic constructions or syntactic parallelism, anaphor, epiphor, annular repetition, polysyndeton, and syntactic convergence.

In the following example structurally similar complex compound sentences are repeated, which include the conditional subordinate and principle clause in the form of a general question with a negative particle not. The last rhetorical question of the four presented below is the most emotionally intense, as it is the main conclusion, cause and explanation of the hero's actions.

If you prick us do we not bleed?

If you tickle us, do we not laugh?

If you poison us, do we not die?

If you wrong us, shall we not revenge?

The increase of intensity on the fourth question can be easily predicted, as well as the allocation of such words as laugh, bleed, die, revengeas emotional epicenters in each of the questions. The interrogatives are general questions which are usually prosodically formed by a gradually descending scale with the rise in the terminal part. In an auditory comparative analysis of all implementations of these interrogatives, we conclude on the authenticity of their melody contours, despite the possible differences in other indicators - FMT (Frequency of the Main Tone), speed, timbre and temporal layout. The last question that is most emotionally intense:

An defy wrong us, should we not revenge?, can be predicted as the most vivid and emotionally highlighted: it explains the meaning and cause of the hero's actions. Three presentations form the final part of the last of structurally similar rhetorical questions precisely by this rule - Rising Tone in the terminal part, with the sliding-rising scale in the initial part. The LSS, on the other hand, uses only medium and low-level scales, even in the terminal part, where, as a rule, there should be a general Rising tone in the general question. The melody of this version is quite different, which, combined with timbral changes, leads to a feeling of extremely high emotional stress. Shylock seemed to be exhausted by his feelings of injustice. That's why, the last sentence in this passage sounds not as a question, but as a call against injustice and even revenge.

Using a similar structural composition with structurally identical complex sentences with conditional contracting, the author further uses the special question on what:

If a Jewis a Christian, what is his humility?

Here, only one of the actors (MT) violates the norm and uses a downward lift in the terminal part, despite the fact that this is a special question. The rest (four implementations) use a normative outline -a gradually descending scale. In the question

If a Christian Wrong a Jew, What should His Suffering Beby Christian Example? as you can see, the hero already concludes about the need for revenge. The performance by the actors of this interrogative must involve a normative gradually descending scale, which is exactly the case, though with the logical underlining of the words shouldor hisand timbral, rhythmic and temporal variations. Actors achieve emotionality due to pauses, timbral changes and temporal indicators. In general, all 100% of the implementations of this fragment are characterized by a regular, normative intonation circuit.

In the following fragment, there is initially a complete structural repetition of

Hath not a Jew ...with a gradual change of semantic loading. To understand and see the evolution of semantic-emotional rhetoric, let's consider some of this maxim separately:

Part One: 1. Hathnot a Jeweyes?

2. Hathnot a Jewhands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions?

Here, in the first part, Oreg. and M.T. use a gradually descending + scadent-ascending scales, whereas Ark. uses a high level scale, and with voice modulations alone he adds some emotional characteristics of its hero. The LSS at this stage (sentence 1) uses gradually descending scale. In the second part of the fragment, the actors use almost their own authentic portrayal, to enhance emotionality and prepare the listener for an even greater increase in violent passions.

Part Two: Fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, Subject to the same deceases, healed by the same means, Warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer, as a Christianis?

The actors in the last fragment in three of the five implementations in the terminal part use rising tone (with the exception of the actor Ark.), which coincides with the canonical norm for the general question. In this example, it is interesting to track the variability of the melody of the fragment as a whole in each of the analyzed implementations. Each of the mini fragments has the same melody outline - high descending. It also ends the actor with the whole fragment. In contrast, the LSS and Oregon implementations in each of the mini fragments use the ascending contour both parts. MT also adheres to this tactic, though with minor variational differences in the pre-terminal mini-fragment. The actors use a low level tone with the case changing to medium and high scales, gradually rising to the words a Christian is. The question, despite the presence of a number of homogeneous members of the sentence, is formed according to the rules - a gradually descending scale with a rise in the terminal part, with the repetition of a typical tune in each subsequent subordinate clause. Actors emphasize semantically important words and use High Wide Fall or High Wide Rise to interrupt the gradually descending scale. In this case, we observe precisely such a prosodic parallelism, which is perceived as rhythmicality. The syntactic parallelism of homogeneous clauses or same-type questions is amplified by repetition and correlated with the identical prosodic contour of intonation groups.

Let's consider three rhetorical questions from Brutus's speech:

Who's heres o base that wouldn't be a bondman?

Who is heres orude that would not be a Roman?

Who is heres ovilet hat wouldn't love his country?

The main words that change in the first two questions are the words base,... bondman, then - rude,... not be a Roman, and in the third question already vileand... not love his country. It is quite predictable that each of the following issues will be increasingly more emotional and intense and the last, third question will be most clearly identified prosodically. Given the fact that these questions are special, the normative intonation model for such questions is, according to the rule, a gradually descending scale. Auditory analysis shows the authenticity and coincidence of the main direction of the melodic pattern with the invariant, specific to special questions. Variability here only concerns the localization of logical stresses. So in the first interrogative of Who is here so base that would not be a bondman? the accent in all the five presentations is observed on Who, but in Mercury Theater (MT) presentation, after the High Fall on Who, the tone stays low, unlike BBC, where the High Wide Fall is recurrent, with repetitions of logically emphasized stresses on not and bondman.

Fig. 1. Intonograms with comparative localization of pauses and highs and lows of CHOT in realizations of the rhetorical question Who is here so base that would not be a bondman?

In the first sentence, MT uses High Fall in each of the first stressed words that are dominant. There is a significant break in phonation following the word base[0.87 sec.]. This hyperbolized pause in the implementation of MT is used to emotionally draw attention to the next rhetorical questions. At the same time, we observe a downward gradient scale, consisting of stressed tones contrasting in height, to a terminal High Fall.

Concerning pauses in the implementation of BBC, here we observe a double pause of 0.11 sec and 0.42 sec. The actor uses in the initial part the high Rise-Fall and the Low Fall in the terminal part. LSS and Oregon implementations have only one break in the 0.59 sec. and 1.42 sec. accordingly.

Summarizing the intonation picture of the first question in the implementations of the analyzed categories of Actors, we can say that it is characterized, with certain variations, by the following: the invariant feature is the presence of one or two pauses, a slight difference of the minimum and maximum indicators of FMT, the maximum located in the initial part on the word who, except for the last sentence, where the maximum FMT is located in the terminal part.

In the second interogative (rude...Roman...), the logical emphasis is no longer on Who, but on rude, with the subsequent protrusion on Roman.

Fig. 2.Intonograms with comparative localization of pauses and highs and lows of FMT in realizations of the rhetorical question Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman?

In the second in the group of three rhetorical questions sentence, the distinctor is again the presence of a break in phonation and its duration. The longest pause in the MT is 0.98 sec. For the BBC and LSS, pause is also a feature, however, both the pause duration and localization are somewhat different (0.16 sec. - BBC, 0.46 sec. - LSS).In Ark, where there are no breaks in phonation at all, the FMT range is the most noticeable (see Fig. 5), and judging by the peaks of FMT, this implementation is characterized by a gradual ascending scale, which contradicts the normative for such questions, with recurrent repetitions of the Fall- Rise-Fall tone, to the word a Roman, which is the emotional and semantic center of this question. As to the implementation of this rhetorical sentence by Oregon, it becomes apparent from the intonogram pattern that it is characterized by recurrent high Rise-Fall tones, and can generally be defined as a gradually descending scale judging from FMT peaks. Obviously, this realisation, with its localization of logical emphasis on not, who, here, rude, Roman, is quite striking.

And finally, in the last, rhetorical question (see Fig. 6), which, as we can see, is the most important of the three:

Fig. 3.Intonograms with comparative localization of pauses and highs and lows of FMT in realizations of rhetorical question Who is here so vile that wouldn't love his country?

The actors use the following tactics to achieve the ultimate, most emotional impact on the crowd. MT, without betraying himself, adheres to the use of hyperbolized pause (1.29 sec), as in the previous two sentences. The rest of the performers do not betray themselves either - BBC and the LSS are paused, as in the previous interrogative (0.16 sec. - BBC, 0.57 sec. - LSS), while Ark and Oregon do without a break in phonation (see fig. 6). . LSS continues to emphasize Who in the third interogative at recurrent repetition of a High Fall, while the rest of the performers again highlight vile and live.

Brutus, manipulating the concepts, very emotionally emphasizes the need to love the country, so it is quite natural to have a logical emphasis on the word country. In addition, in this matter, actors also make a logical emphasis on the word vile, using a high falling tone, and after a long pause (MT) use a gradually descending scale. Other actors either use a simple flat scale (Ark and Oregon - with variations), with a pitch and logical terminal emphasis on the country.

Comparing the realization of these rhetorical questions with the syntactic repetition by actors of historically different periods of time, we came to the conclusion, that in order to achieve emotional effect, the actors may violate the rule of intonation formula for a specific type of a question on the second and third questions. However sometimes, despite all the minor prosodic variations in all the three consequent questions, the actors generally may stick to the melody outline, forming it according to the rule, either as gradually descending or as a broken descending scale.

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