Rendering economics idiomswith colour names: a cross-cultural aspect

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Rendering economics idiomswith colour names: a cross-cultural aspect

Mykhaylenko V.V.

Doctor of Рhilology, Professor

Department of Translation and Philology

King Danylo University

Summary

The present paper is focused on rendering colour names in the idioms of the Economics discourse. Colour names black, blue, gray, green, orange, red, white, and yellow in the idiomatic structures are retrieved from the Discourse of Economics and verified in the Ivestopedia, Business, and Finance dictionaries. Various aspects of colour names - etymological, lexical, functional, and cross-cultural - have been the object of analysis and discussion. The algorithm of rendering the economic idioms with the colour constituent has been suggested by the author.

Theoretical introductory notes. The colour names in one culture require principles of their clear-cut classification. But the colour names in the cross-cultural format [11, p. 34-37] require modeling ethnic-cultural taxonomy. And in translation we must specify the common and distinctive features in the bi-linguistic contrastive system. Colour plays multiple roles in the human society, it is often taken for granted, yet it conveys vital massages. Geoff Quilley and Kay D. Krizin their book An Economy of Colour: Visual Culture and the North Atlantic World, 1660-1830 (Critical Perspectives in Art History) reassert the primacy of visual culture as an active participant in forming this complex and fluid “imagined community” [16]. Colours affect human behaviour, mood, and perception, people have colour and economic event associations which in turn might bring about a link between colour and perception of the event and many different ways in which humans categorize and label colours can be determined [5, p. 1-3]. We must add that in the process of the language development colour nominations can be shifted either from the dominant position in the semantic domain, or completely “ousted” from the colour semantic domain [3, p. 25], e. the evolutionary approach to the semantics of the colour term cannot be avoided [2, p. 59, 104]. We can find The Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) theory introduced by Anna Wierzbicka and her associates has turned out to be a most useful theoretical and methodological framework for semantic analysis in various linguistic domains. Language reflects conceptualizations, not the neutral representation of colour in the pathways between the eye and brain [20, p. 99-100; 14, p. 77-86]. It is very important to represent adequately the metaphorical terms existing in the area of economics, because of a variety of transformations. Most of problems are contained in different perception of these terms in English and Ukrainian [12, p. 169-74]. The link between the neural representation of colour and the linguistic representation of colour can only be indirect. The way leads via concepts because sense data are “private” (even if they are rooted in pan-human neural responses), whereas concepts can be shared [8, p. 273-274]. To be able to talk with others about one's private sense data one must be able to translate them first into communicable concepts. Andres Steinvall in his dissertation says that he “has principally been concerned with reference within the colour domain” and then he comes to conclusion that “a classificatory function of a term may allow it to refer outside its normal area, and the choice of term may be dependent on the vantage of the conceptualiser” [17, p. 162-163]. Metaphor is not a “special” use of language, but pervades all interaction [21]. They claim that metaphor in language is the result of analogical nature of human conceptualization. Metaphorical expressions reflect the relationship between language and culture.

In the process of economic idiom translation we consider it is necessary to take into account such characteristics of many economic terms as their metaphorical colour. Strategies of metaphoric economic term translation, and manifold types of transformations used in the process of their translation, will be surveyed as an object of scientific investigation. There is no doubt that the mental picture of the world represented in Ukrainian, and the same phenomenon in English, are quite different. They are abstractions suitable for general use (and not tied to a single object or class of objects) and show linguistic productivity, spawning adjectives and modified forms. That is why, in order to overcome this obstacle, the use of explicatory translation is also one of the most productive ways. There are two main approaches to the translated text Ulrych and Murphy [19]: (i) the contrastive-linguistic approach focused on systemic differences between the ST and TT and on how these differences impact the translation process and product and the descriptive translation approach Toury [18] focused on the nature of the translation process itself [see the dissertation: 1, p. 17-19]:

Literal translation, direct translation, or word-for-word translation is the rendering of text from one language to another one word at a time with or without conveying the sense of the original whole. In translation studies, “literal translation” denotes technical translation of scientific, technical, technological or legal texts.

Modulation in translation basically means using a phrase that is different in the source and target languages to convey the same idea: There are two types of modulation: (a) Recorded modulation used in bilingual dictionaries. It is conventionally established and is considered by many to be a ready-made procedure; (b) Free modulation is considered to be more practical in cases where “the target language rejects literal translation”. Explicatory translation is decoding information what is verbalized that is encoded in linguistic forms [13, p. 65]. These three instruments will be employed to translate the economics idioms into Ukrainian.

The cognitive-science research refers metaphor rather to conceptual than to linguistic phenomena. Conceptual metaphors consist of “source domain” frames in our case, like COLOUR that is mapped onto “target domains” frames, like FINANCE CRISIS, or TRADE. Metaphor (Arutyunova, 1990) is a challenge to the existing language worldview. The source of metaphor lies in the Speaker's conscious violation of generally accepted canons of societal perception of the worldview, for instance, the physical meaning of black is “absence of colour”, the lexical meaning is “colour of race,” parts of a body, clothes, paint, natural phenomena, etc., the symbolic meaning is “sinister, dirty, or tragic” in the first process of metaphorizing the item like Black Friday verbalizes the component financial crisis, which hereafter- as the outcome of the second process of metaphorizing - started to actualize the component of the “greatest sale”. Therefore comes remapping of language means among semantic and conceptual domains, see: COLOUR DOMAIN ^ FINANCE DOMAIN ^ TRADE DOMAIN [7, p. 331]. And metaphorizing brings about a semantic in decompositionality of the binary idioms.

Corpus analysis. Colour names black, blue, gray, green, orange, red, white, and yellow in the idiomatic structures are retrieved from the Discourse of Economics and verified in the dictionaries. Various aspects of colour names have been discussed, primarily, from the language “internal” point, Asa Wirkforss examines them from the “externalist” point [21, p. 400-401]. Uwe Durst says that when analyzing Natural language the meanings must be represented in natural language. And he underlines that The famili artrappings of semantic analysis: features, mathematical concepts, logical languages, models of worlds or situations, etc. are out of place in proper semantic analysis [6, p. 157]. We shall try to correlate the both approaches in investigating developments in the lexical and functional semantics of the colour names in the Discourse of Economics (see colour spectrum in the author's discourse [15, p. 66-69]).

1. Black: Traditionally, we know the black colour in economy. It is the underground activity which operates in violation of existing laws. In the Economics discourse the lexeme black is mostly used as a modifer of some days of a week (Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, weekend) [14, p. 2014], money, and it is also used as a constituent of the idioms like Black Knight and in the black. The semantic analysis of the collocations with the lexeme black reveals its metaphoric character, i.e. the original lexical meaning of colour turns into a positive or negative feature of the idiom head word and, consequently, here is a shift of a free combination into the idiom. Three types of economy can be distinguished: (a) gray (informal) economy - legal types of economic activity, as a result of which the recipients of services hide them from taxation; (b) fictitious in which, as a rule, administration of enterprises and officials receive profits; and (c) the black (underground) economy is prohibited by law: drug trafficking, smuggling, counterfeiting, money laundering, murder and others. 1.1 Black Economy. The componet dirty or soil of the adjective black is actualized in the Financial discourse and Legal discourse, while ther the original colour component remains covert. Let's compare the SD and TD contexts: (i) Engl.: The black economy is a segment of a country's economic activity that is derived from sources that fall outside of the country's rules and regulations regarding commerce. The activities can be either legal or illegal depending on what goods and/or services are involved. (ii) Ukr. The “shadow (Engl. grey; Ukr. тіньова) economy” in economic discourse is defined as economic activity outside the state accounting and control. The contextual analysis of English and Ukrainian correspondences can formulate the following transformation: SD: Black Economy ^ TD: ттьова (неофіційна «сіра»; підпільна «чорна) економіка.

There are three possible variants of the modifier black in Ukrainian revealing the common component “illegal”. Due to metaphorizing, a new knowledge of the economics arises, which is objectified in linguistic forms. The regular lexical meaning of black as a colour (Telia, 1988) underlines that it is “al ready known reality embedded in the meaning of the rethought name are embedded in the new knowledge, which leaves traces in the metaphorical meaning, which in turn “introduced” in to the worldview expressed by the language”

Black Money: The original semantic component of colour shifted to the periphery and the component illegal becomes overt actualized in the Financial discourse and Legal discourse. Cf. Source Discourse (hereafter SD) and Target Discourse (hereafter TD): (i) Engl. Black money is money earned through any illegal activity controlled by country regulations. Black money proceeds are usually received in cash from underground economic activity and, as such, are not taxed. Recipients of black money must hide it, spend it only in the underground economy or attempt to give it the appearance of legitimacy through money laundering. Synonyms in the Media discourse: shady money, dark money. (ii) Ukr. Брудні гроші, отримані не законним шляхом. In the Finance discourse (a constituent of the Economics discourse) the idiom is rendered in following way: SD: Black (syn. shady, dark money ^ TD: брудні гроші.

Black Tuesday. The original colour component is shifted to the periphery and the component disaster is actualized, likewise in the (1.4) Black Wednesday, (1.5) Black Thursday, and (1.6) Black Friday, see the following contexts: (i) Engl. Black Tuesday was Oct. 29, 1929, and it was marked by a sharp fall in the stock market, with the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) especially hard hit in high trading volume. The DJIA fell 12 percent, one of the largest one-day drops in stock market history. More than 16 million shares were traded in the panic sell-off, which effectively ended the Roaring 20s and led the global economy into the Great Depression. (ii) Ukr. Чорний вівторок став «спусковим гачком» Великої депресії в США 29 жовтня 1929 року, на п'ятий день «біржової лихоманки», у день, охрещений журналістами та брокерами «чорним вівторком»: SD: Black Tuesday (чорний ^ crisis) ^TD: «чорний вівторок» (crisis). 1.4. Black Wednesday. (i) Engl. Black Wednesday refers to September 16, 1992, when a collapse in the pound sterling forced Great Britain to withdraw from the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM). (ii) Ukr. День 16 вересня 1992 року, коли y Великій Британії різко здешевів фунт стерлінгів: SD: Black Wednesday (чорний ^ crisis) ^ TD: «чорна середа» (crisis).

Black Thursday. (i) Engl. Black Thursday is the name given to Thursday, Oct. 24, 1929, when the Dow Jones Industrial Average plunged 11% at the open in very heavy volume, precipitating the Wall Street crash of 1929 and the subsequent Great Depression of the 1930s. (ii) Ukr. Чорний четвер 24 жовтня 1929 року став одним із найчорніших в історії американської економіки та провісником Великої депресії: SD: Black Thursday (чорний ^ crisis) ^ TD: «чорнй четвер» (crisis). The day and the date are fixed in the American history.

Black Friday. (i) Engl. In American history, Black Friday was a stock market catastrophe that took place on Sept. 24, 1869, after a period of rampant speculation, the price of gold plummeted, and the markets crashed. (ii) Ukr. Криза, катастрофа на фондовому ринку, in the USA on Sept. 24, 1869. SD: Black Thursday (чорний ^ crisis) ^ TD: «чорнй четвер» (crisis). The day and the date are fixed in the American history.

Black Friday. This idiom has undergone metaphoriz- ing twice: when the dominant component of colour gave way to the peripheral component crisis or catastrophe in the lexical meaning which also gave way to the component, cf. the following contexts: (i) Engl. Black Friday is an informal name for the Friday following Thanksgiving Day celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November. Since 1952 it has been regarded as the beginning of America's Christmas shopping season. Although the term Black Friday was not widely used until 1961. (ii) Ukr. Вперше День величезних розпродажів офіційно відбувся в 1961 році, і з того часу кожна п'ятниця після Дня подяки відкриває сезон різдвяних знижок. Поліцейські у своїх звітах назвали добу після Дня подяки «чорною» - на свята міста і дороги були паралізовані автомобілями у напрямку супермаркетів і назад: SD: Black Friday (lucky shopping day) ^TD: «чорна п'ятниця» (день величезних розпродажів).

Black Weekend. Due to the popularity of Black Friday among customers and trading companies in pursuit of super-profits Black Friday was prolonged throughout the following weekend. (i) Engl. Historically, it was common for Black Friday sales to extend throughout the following weekend. In Ukrainian Economics Discourse this idiom *чорні вихідні is not registered, the trading companies advertize три дні розпродажу в п'ятницю, суботу та неділю. (ii) Ukr. Pозпродаж на вихідні. The referred idiom is not registered in Ukrainian, though we can suggest the following: SD: Black Weekend (lucky shopping weekends) ^ TD: вдалі вихідні величезних розпродажів. Accordingly, the semantics of the phrase has been enriched with an additional component of duration. At present due to the booming online trade the term Cyber Monday is introduced to label the Monday following Thanksgiving (U. S. observed), representing the day online retailers offer deep discounts.

In cases 1.1-1.7 we can admit a universal feature of the given conceptual metaphors in different languages. Z. Kovecses suggests his explanations: (i) All languages developed the same conceptual metaphors by some miracle; (ii)languages borrowed the metaphors from each other; and (iii) there may be some universal basis for the same metaphors to develop in the diverse languages [9, p. 199]. We would like to specify the author's third suggestion, in the Global world the market economy develops according to the common laws and that makes it vulnerable in case of any changes in the lead country economy. Accordingly, the Economics Discourse borrows the referred idioms mainly from Global English to reflect tkise change. 1.9 The semantics of metaphors like Black Friday or Black weekend are of a particular importance for the presentation of untranslatable information, emotions (Nikitin, 1979; Riker, 1990; Apresyan, 1993; Paducheva, 2004). 1.10. In the black. (i) Engl. The term black is used to refer to a company's profitability. A company is said to be in the black if it is profitable or, more specifically, if the company produces positive earnings after accounting for all expenses. Conversely, a company with negative earnings would be said to be “in the red”. (ii) Ukr. прибуток. The given idiom is not registered in Ukrainian, though we can suggest the following transformation: SD: In the black (originally in black ink) profit ^ TD: прибуток/

1.10 Black Knight. (i) Engl. A Black Knight is a company that makes an unwelcome takeover offer for a target company. When a company is facing a hostile takeover bid, a white knight may make a friendly takeover offer that enables the target company to avoid the hostile takeover. (ii) Ukr. Рейдерська компанія/метод недружнього поглинання. SD: Black Knight (company aided at hostile taking over another company) ^ TD: рейдерська компанія.

Blue: 2.1 At present the blue represents the most interesting development as the recycling of leftovers. Ukr. Галузь економіки з утилізації відходів: SD: Blue economy ^ TD: прибуткова галузь економіки з утилізації відходів.

Blue chip (COMPANY). (i) Engl. A blue chip is a nationally recognized, well-established, and financially sound company. Blue chips generally sell high-quality, widely accepted products and services. (ii) Ukr. Компанія звисокими та стабільними дивідендами. There is no corresponding unit in Ukrainian, therefore the following transformation is suggested: SD: Blue chip (COMPANY) ^ TD: Компанія з високими дивідендами.

Blue-Chip Stock. (i) Engl. A blue-chip stock is the stock of a large, well-established and financially sound company that has operated for many years. A blue-chip stock typically has a market capitalization in the billions. (ii) Ukr. Акції з високими дивідендами. Like wise the following transformation is employed: SD: Blue-Chip Stocks ^ TD: Акції з високими та стабільними дивідендами. 2.4. Blue Book. (i) Engl. The fair purchase price listed in the Blue Book is established to show the price other consumers typically pay for the same vehicle. The prices in the Blue Book are set by gathering data on thousands of consumer vehicle purchase prices. (ii) Синя книга. Such book is not in use in Ukraine, so we can suggest the following transformation: SD: Blue Book ^ TD: кодифікатор (індикативних) товарів і цін.

Brown: The brown economy basically refers to the industries which cause high levels of pollution and gas emissions. Such industries are cement, iron smelting, quarrying and coal mining and coal-using production facilities. However, since the semantics of the colour name has radically changed: 3.1. Brown goods. (i) Engl. Relatively light electronic consumer durables such as TVs, radios, digital media players, and computers, as distinct from heavy consumer durables such as air conditioners, refrigerators, stoves, which are called white goods. Ukr. Побутова електронна техніка, яку вирізняють за розміром: мала і велика. Accordingly: SD: Browngoods ^ TD: мала побутова електронна техніка and SD: Whitegoods ^ TD: велика побутова електронна техніка.

Brownfield. (i) Engl. Вrownfield is when a company or government entity purchases or leases existing production facilities to launch a new production activity. This is one strategy used in foreign-direct investment into existing facilities. (ii) Ukr. Купівля/ лізинг виробничих потужностей для виробництва нового продукту. Due to the absence of the corresponding term we can suggest the following transformation: SD: Brownfield ^ TD: іноземна пряма інвестиція у виробничі потужності, що вже існують, для випуску нового продукту.

Gray (Now the grey economy is an informal activity that the government is unaware of, or because the government allows it to operate free of regulations and taxes): 4.1 Gray Market. (i) Engl. A gray market is an unofficial market where securities are traded. Gray (or grey) market trading generally occurs when a stock that has been suspended trades off-market, or when new securities are bought and sold before official trading begins. The gray market enables the issuer and underwriters to gauge demand for a new offering because it is a “when issued” market; i.e., it trades securities that will be offered in the very near future. The gray market is an unofficial one, but is not illegal. (іі) Ukr. Сірий / тіньовий / чорний ринок цінних паперів. There is the same difficulty as in the case of black market translation. Here is our suggestion: SD: Gray Market (of securities) ^ TD: тіньовий ринок цінних паперів (неофіційний але легальний).

Green economy is a term which caught fire at the Earth summit that was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 Green has an overall positive message in business. 5.1 Green Monday: (і) Engl. Green Monday is a retail term for the second Monday in December, one of the most lucrative days for retail companies. eBay claims to have coined the phrase. However, some report, it was Shopping.com, who coined the phrase. Either way, this retail event continues to be a marker of holiday sales. Ukr. Великий розпродаж у другий понеділок грудня (початок різдв'яних розпродажів). This type of lucrative retailing has not found its way to the Ukrainian retail market / it can be rendered with the help of the transformation: SD: Green Monday ^ TD: початок різдв'яних розпродажів.

Green-field. (i)Engl. When a parent company or government begins a new venture by constructing new facilities in a country outside of where the company is head quartered. Ukr. Будівництво з «нуля» іноземною компанією. At present the English term is added in the Ukrainian discourse: SD: Green-field ^ TD: будівництво нових виробничих потужностей іноземною компанією.

Green marketing: (i) Engl. Green marketing consists of marketing products and services based on environmental factors or awareness. Green marketing, here, means that producers use environmentally friendly processes in production, such as recycling water, using renewable energy or reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Ukr. Ринок екологічно «чистих» продуктів. Here is a transformation of expansion: SD: Green marketing ^ TD: ринок екологічно «чистих» продуктів.

Orange: 6.1 The Orange Book. (i) Engl. The Orange Book is a list of drugs that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved as both safe and effective. Formally called Approved Drug Products with Therapeutic Equivalence Evaluations, the Orange Book does not include drugs only approved as safe. Furthermore, a drug that is currently subject to regulatory action may still appear in the Orange Book. Ukr. Перелік дозволених ліків для продажу (у США - Оранжева книга). There is a Ukrainian corresponding term: SD: Orange Book (US) ^ TD: Ukr. Перелік дозволених ліків для продажу. The cultural and symbolic components are lost in translation.

Red: First, the red economy according to many authors, refers to the communist-leaning economies where the state takes hold of production and distribution: 7.1 In the red. (i) Engl. In the red is used widely to refer to companies that have not been profitable within their last accounting period. This term is derived from the color of ink used to by accountants to enter a negative figure on a company's financial statements. (ii) Ukr. Витрата (бухгалтерський облік). See the opposite in the red. The Ukrainian corresponding term is used, however, it loses its English semantic components of colour and ink) and it is not related to the conceptual metaphor: SD: In the red ^ TD: витрати (бухгалтерський облік).

White: 8.1 White Knight: (i) Engl. In literary English the white knight is considered to be a stock character, a fictional one based on a common literary or social stereotype White Knight is a third company that makes a friendly offer to buy the acquisition target. A White Knight in finance, as defined by Investopedia is “the “saviour” of a company in the midst of a hostile takeover”. (іі) Ukr. Білий лицар - особа, що дружньо ставиться до даної компанії, яка поглинається, може звернутися із пропозицією про придбання частки її акцій. In the Ukrainian transformation of the English idiom the only component is actualized: SD: White Knight ^ TD: вигідний інвестор (покупець акцій, рятівник даної компанії від поглинання іншою). Проте відповідний українській термін поки не запропоновано.

White Elephant. (i) Engl. A white elephant is an investment whose cost of upkeep is not in line with how useful or valuable the item is. From an investment perspective, it refers to an investment, property or business that is so expensive to operate and maintain that it is extremely difficult to actually make a profit. (ii) Ukr. Зайва роскіш; зайва трата. In the Ukrainian the symbolism, unicity, and metaphoric feature are lost: ST: White elephant ^ TD: зайва, дорога річ.

White paper. (і) Engl. A white paper (sales and marketing document) is an informational document, issued by a company or not-for-profit organization, to promote or highlight the features of a solution, product, or service; (іі) Ukr. Каталог компаній, продукціі та послуг для можливих покупців. We suggest the following transformation: SD: Whitepaper ^ TD: каталог компаній, продукціі та послуг.

Yellow: 9.1 Yellow Knight. (і) Engl. A yellow knight is a company that was planning a hostile takeover attempt, but backs out of it and instead proposes a merger of equals with the target company. (іі) Ukr. Компанія, яка планує агресивне поглинання іншої компанії, але потім вона пропонує об'єднання. Відповідно: SD: Yellow Knight ^ TD: Ukr. Компания, яка планує агресивне поглинання, а потім пропонує обєднання.

The stereotypical language world view is opposed to an associative figurative - metaphorical worldview, which in a new way reflects objects, events, phenomena, processes, attributes [4]. Since metaphors are related to different cultural domains, this implies that the translator has to do the job of conceptual mapping on behalf of the TL reader; s/he has to look for a TL similar cognitive equivalence in the target culture.

The findings and perspectives. The metaphorical worldview, which due to the development of the society in time and space is opposed to the generally accepted language worldview that constantly enriches the language and predetermines the interpretation and translation of metaphorical idioms in multi-mode contexts or various professional discourse registers.

The symbolic meaning of the colour is not a constant value, notwithstanding over time, the speaker's perception may change and it is usually revealed in the contest. But the synchronic components are not lost, they are gradually accumulated to form a semantic structure with its nucleus and peripheries. Its components are actualized due to the speaker's intention and type of discourse. For instance, “the generally accepted rule was pink for the boys, and blue for the girls up to the forties of the XX-th c. The reason is that pink, being a more decided and stronger colour, is more suitable for the boy, while blue, which is more delicate and dainty, is prettier for the girl”.

English metaphorical economic terms are translated into the Target Discourse mostly on the basis of three methods. Modulation, literal translation, and explicatory translation which were examined here are the most typical ways of metaphoric meaning rendering. However, the choice of these methods of translation depends on various extra-linguistic factors, e.g. on translators' knowledge in the sphere of ethnic stereotypes, historical and cultural background, and conceptual picture of the world represented in Source Discourse.

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