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Uzhhorod National University

Target language transformations in the translation of “The Lord of the rings" by J.R.R. Tolkien

Litak A.M.

The basic maintains of research

When two texts in different languages are compared, it inevitably involves such phenomena as equivalence and transformations. Translator's transformations belong to the central issues in translation although their classification, relevance and applicability within the field of translation theory have caused heated controversy.

As we focus on the translation of works of literature, V.N. Komissarov's statement is worth mentioning, i. e. “the main task of literary translation is to have an aesthetico-artistic effect on the TL reader” [4, c.100]. Artistic translation is a fact of language and literature. In the majority of cases the source language and the target language are considerably different in their inner structure. The SL structure does not coincide with the TL structure. This causes the necessity to apply grammatical transformations first of all. These discrepancies may be either complete or partial. Complete divergence is observed in those cases when the grammatical form existing in the SL is absent from the TL. In some cases the grammatical category of one language is wider than the grammatical category of another language. Cases of partial coincidence may be singled out. It occurs when a certain grammatical category exists in both languages, but it coincides not in all its forms.

This article is devoted to the question of lexical and grammatical problems of translation and ways of their solving in the TL of Tolkien's work “The Lord of the Rings”. We shall basically deal with lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical transformations.

When we deal with language units, we deal with the plane of content and the plane of expression. These two planes are inseparably connected. The plane of content comprises all the meaningful, semantic elements contained in the language, while the plane of expression comprises all the material, formal units of the language. Each lingual unit, including grammatical units, is a unity of meaning and form, of content and the means of its expression. But the correspondence between the two planes is not one - to-one; the relations between the units of content and the units of expression are more complex. Formal and semantic systems of the source language differ from the ones of the target language. In cases of polysemy_and homonymy two or more units of the plane of content correspond to one unit of the plane of expression, for example, the lexical homonyms: seal, hand, etc. In cases of synonymy, just the other way round, two or more units of the plane of expression correspond to one unit of the plane of content, for example, the lexical synonyms: pretty, nice, beautiful, etc. The Ukrainian language possesses large morphological resources, the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word is fulfilled through them; in English it rests on the context, the surrounding words, the sentence structure. Let us compare мале, маля, малятко with little one, little chap which are expressed by analytical means. Strong dependence on the context is observed in connection with grammatical meanings, thus the categories of transitivity or intransitivity, perfectiveness and imperfectiveness of the verb are often determined only in the context. The verb `awake ' - будити and прокидатися, cease - припиняти, припинятися, change - змінювати, змінюватися. There are difficulties in the process of translating no-equivalent lexis. These are words, and word combinations denoting subjects, processes or phenomena which do not have equivalents in the target language at the present stage of its development. In this case the translator resorts to either description or transliteration. Dealing with grammatical and lexical problems of translation Peter Newmark stresses on the phenomenon of ambiguity - grammatical ambiguity and lexical ambiguity. He dwells upon “ambiguity” in a fragment of the SL text, normally a word or a syntactic structure, having apparently more than one meaning, in or in spite of its context: “the shooting of the hunters”. He states that a syntactically ambiguous sentence is a poorly written sentence. These ambiguities are rather common in English than in the Slavonic languages.compared to grammatical ambiguity, lexical ambiguity is far more widespread and more difficult to clear up. However, Umberto Eco does not dwell upon the poor style of writing when ambiguities occur. He claims that these ambiguities should remain in the translation as well.

The problems of translation and translator's transformations have been studied by such researchers as Barkhudarov, Komissarov, Latyshev, Minyar-Beloruchev, Retsker, Korunets, Koptilov, Darbelnet and Vinay, Newmark and others. There is no unified view of classifying translator's transformations. “One cannot fail to notice that some sense units of the source language retain their sense and structure in the target language unchanged, whereas others retain only their content/meaning unchanged, but altered or completely changed their origin/source language form. The kind of major and minor alterations in the structural form of language units performed with the aim of achieving faithfulness in translation are referred to as translator's transformations" [5, p.361].

Korunets underlines the fact that a considerable number of sense units are transplanted to the target language in the form, meaning and the structure of the original, i. e., unchanged or little changed. Among these are the following classes of language units:

1) most of genuine internationalisms, some idiomatic expressions, culturally biased notions, e. g. marketing маркетинг, chemical reaction хімічна реакція, democratic system демократична система, veni, vidi, vici прийшов, побачив, переміг, etc.;

2) many loan internationalisms which maintain in the target language the same meaning and often the same structural form but have a different phonetic sounding, e. g. agreement/concord/ узгодження, standard of living / життєвий рівень etc.;

3) almost all proper nouns of various subclasses: e. g. Dora Дора, Newton Ньютон, Boston Бостон, etc.

Komissarov insists on the fact that “in the framework of describing the process of translation translator's transformations are examined not in the light of statics as the means of analyzing the relations between the source language units and their dictionary equivalents but in the light of dynamics as the means of translation which can be used by a translator while translating different originals in those cases when there is no dictionary equivalent or when it can't be applied because of the context" [4, c.172]. In order to obtain equivalence the translator's task is to perform skillfully different translator's transformations in such a way that the translation of the text should render fully the information of the original text, adhering to the corresponding norms of the target language.

Different classifications of transformations are suggested. Some linguists refer the same transformations to lexical ones, others - to grammatical ones. Let us consider some classifications. Latyshev L. K. gives his classification of the transformations which is based on the character of deviation from interlingual correspondences. According to it, all translator's transformations are divided into:

1) morphological;

2) syntactical;

3) stylistic;

4) semantic;

5) mixed (lexico-semantic and syntactico-morphological). Another prominent linguist Barkhudarov L. S. classifies translator's transformations according to formal features: word order change, addition, grammar substitution, omission. He admits that such division, to a large extent, is approximate and conventional as well as Lvovskaia Z. D. who claims that there is no “stone” wall between various types of transformations, the same transformations may sometimes represent a controversial case, they can be referred to different types. Fiterman A. M. and Levitskaia T. R. speak about three types of transformations: grammatical transformations (word order change, omission, addition, sentence rearrangement and substitution), stylistic transformations (synonymic substitutions, descriptive translation, compensation and other kinds of substitution), lexical transformations (substitution, addition, specification, generalization, omission). Retsker Y.I. names two types of transformations: grammatical transformations (replacement of parts of speech and parts of a sentence), lexical transformations (specification, generalization, differentiation, antonymic translation, compensation, modulation, full rearrangement). Miniar - Beloruchev R. K. suggests three types of transformations: lexical (generalization and specification), grammatical: (passivization, replacement of parts of speech and sentence parts, sentence partitioning and integration), semantic (synonymic and metaphoric substitutions, explication, antonymic translation and compensation). Peter Newmark singles out the following transformations: transference, naturalization, functional equivalent, synonymy, through translation, shifts, modulation, recognized translation, translation label, compensation, componential analysis, reduction and expansion, paraphrase, couplets.

The translation presents a heuristic process in the course of which the translator solves a number of creative problems using some aggregate of techniques. They break the formal aspect of the translation but provide the achieving of higher level of equivalency. Studying different classifications of transformations one may observe that there are certain techniques, the most common ones being rearrangement, addition and omission which are employed in the process of translation.

The word order of an English sentence is fixed, the order of parts of the sentence is determined by the rules of syntax whereas in Ukrainian it is not so. Rearrangement is applicable, for instance, when there is a compound subject in the sentence: e. g. A big wave of protests of all the parties - large and small, strong and weak - against violence and injustice is rising.

Наростає хвиля протестів з боку всіх партій - великих і малих, сильних і слабких - проти насилля та несправедливості.

English sentences are usually more compressed than Ukrainian ones. Thus they require fuller expression of thought. Many elements of the content staying unexpressed in the original must be expressed in the translation with the help of additional lexical units. Additional elements are especially urgent while translating attributive word groups: e. g. white schools - школи для білих, lily-white jury - суд присяжних, що складається лише з білих.

lexical grammatical problem translation

The technique of omission is opposite to addition. The translator usually omits semantically redundant words, i. e., words expressing the meanings which can be easily understood from the context. The example of such redundancy is the usage of the so - called “pair synonyms” - words whose meanings are close. It is not characteristic of the Ukrainian language. Thus, in the process of translation one of the synonyms, as a rule, is omitted: just and equitable treatment - справедливе ставлення.

Despite numerous classifications based upon different criteria, the majority of linguists agree upon the division of translator's transformations into grammatical, lexical and complex lexico-grammatical ones.

In the process of studying the examples taken from the SL and the TL texts of “The Lord of the Rings”, Komissarov's classification was used. He is one of those who attempted to give a clear-cut classification of translator's transformations. We also suggest adhering to it for the sake of convenience. According to his classification, grammatical transformations include syntactical adaptation, sentence partitioning, sentence integration, grammar substitutions; lexical transformations comprise transcription, transliteration, calque translation, lexico-semantic substitutions; antonymic translation, explication, compensation belong to lexico-grammatical transformations. Let us examine these subtypes and the text fragments from the SL and TL of Tolkien's work to demonstrate their usage.

Grammatical transformations. The grammatical structure of English differs from the one of Ukrainian. The Ukrainian and English languages have common grammatical features. It is explained by their belonging to the Indo-European family and is shown in possessing common grammatical meanings, categories and functions, for example: the category of number (for nouns), the category of the degree of comparison (for adjectives), the category of tense (for the verb). The word order in English is stable, fixed in comparison with relatively free one in Ukrainian. The Ukrainian language is synthetical. Either coincidences or noncoincidences in the grammatical categories of both languages cause grammatical transformations. The factors which influence the applicability of grammatical transformations are the following: syntactical function of clauses, lexical aggregate, sense structure, the context (environment) of the sentence, its expressive-stylistic function.

Syntactical adaptation (word-for-word translation) is the so-called zero transformation which is applied in cases when there are parallel syntactical structures in both languages. However, it is accompanied by some changes of the structural components: the omission of articles, link verbs, functional words, transcription (proper names). For example:

Give me the ring for a moment [12, p.112].

Дай-но мені персня на хвилю [11, c.56].

We 're hobbits [14, p.109].

Ми гобіти [11, c.436].

Having examined the cases of syntactic adaptation I should mark that the tendency to use this type of transformation is observed while dealing with simple sentences of the SL. When the sentence structure includes some participial structures, gerunds, other peculiar grammatical forms and when the sentence is rather long, the translator is to apply other types of transformations. In the afore-mentioned examples one may observe the omission of articles or the notional verb. The changes, however, don't touch the basic structure of the SL sentences. As a rule, the quantity of the SL elements corresponds to the quantity of the TL elements. Nevertheless, Fedorov A. V. states “all attempts to do word-for-word translation may lead to the text misunderstanding” [20, c.131].

Sentence partitioning is the replacement of a simple sentence in the source text with a complex sentence (with some clauses), or a complex sentence with several independent sentences in the target text for structural, semantic or stylistic reasons, for instance:

Giants and other portents on the borders of the Shire were forgotten for more important matters: Mr. Frodo was selling Bag End, indeed he had already sold it - to the Sackville-Bagginses [12, p.150].

npo eeaemie і про інші чудеса забули заради важливіших справ: пан Фродо продавав Торбин Кут. Насправді, він уже продав його - Сумоселам-Торбинам [11, с.72].

One cannot but mention other transformations: omission (on the border of the Shire), the substitution of the passive structure with the active one). Transliteration (Фродо) and functional substitution (Торбин Кут) in the process of translating these author neologisms were employed. The SL sentence is composite. In the TL one can see two sentences, the second being a simple one. One more example:

It was clear at any rate that he had no hope of getting into orc-hold by that gate, he might wait there for days before it was opened, and he could not wait: time was desperately precious [18, p.9].

Одне було зрозуміло: надія пробратися в орківську твердиню через ці двері - марна. Може, довелося би прочекати багато днів, поки їх відчинять, а чекати він не міг: час був просто дорогоцінний [11, c.833].

The SL composite sentence transforms into two. The first is composite asyndatic. One may observe omission, a grammatical substitution (gerund ^ infinitive), word order change, a lexico-grammatical transformation is used here - antonymic translation.

The second sentence is a composite one with subordination and coordination. It is always easier to follow the thread of the context when the sentences are neither long nor overloaded.

Sentence integration is a contrary transformation. It takes place when we make one sentence out of two or more, or convert a complex sentence into a simple one. The grouping frequently takes place when the translator deals with several simple sentences. The merge of sentences, preserving informative value and text unity, leads to the compression of the utterance, e. g.:

He paused, silent for a moment. Then without another word he turned away from the lights and voices in the fields and tents, and followed by his three companions went round into his garden, and trotted down the long sloping path [12, p.82].

Він постояв мовчки якусь хвилю, не зронивши жодного слова повернувся спиною до вогнів і голосів і разом із трьома товаришами попростував спершу до саду, а потім довгою крутою стежкою в долину [11, с.43].

In this example a simple sentence and a compound sentence were combined. It became one compound sentence. We may observe other transformations: omission, grammatical substitutions. Here is another example where two simple sentences of the source language being combined give us a compound one in the TL. Generalization and transcription are also observed in the translated fragment:

A spasm of anger passed swiftly over the hobbit's face again. Suddenly it gave way to a look of relief and a laugh [12, p.81].

Гримаса гніву знову пересмикнула обличчя гобіта, але швидко змінилася на просвітлену посмішку [11, c.43].

Another interesting example worth mentioning is this grouping of four sentences. A vast winged shape passed over the moon like a black cloud. It wheeled and went north, flying at a speed greater than any wind of Middle-earth. The stars fainted before it. It was gone [15, p.181].

Величезна крилата тінь, гасячи зорі, чорною хмарою пролетіла попід місяцем, окреслила широке коло і швидше від будь-якого вітру в Середзем 'ї помчала на північ [11, с.555].

Besides sentence integration one cannot but notice word order change, omission, grammar substitution, loan translation.

Grammatical substitution is a deliberate change of the grammar category by some other grammar means. Substitution takes place when a grammar category or form does not exist in the target language and, therefore, cannot produce the same impact upon the target text receptor. In the text under consideration one may find a number of grammatical substitutions. The discrepancy in the category of number exists leads to the substitution of the plural form of an English noun with the singular form of a Ukrainian noun, or the reverse:

Cabbages and potatoes are better for me and you. Don't go getting mixed up in the business of your betters, or you'll land in trouble too big for you, I says to him [12, p.56].

Капуста і картопля - оце наше, а ти не пхайся у справи розумніших за тебе, бо знайдеш біду на свою голову [11, с.32].

In the English language, the category of gender is of conventional character. Basically we speak about the gender in this language only in connection with pointing out to natural biological sex. The Ukrainian language possesses the developed gender system. “It" is used in English to express the neuter gender and when we speak about things, animals.

It comes home to you, as they say, because it is home, and you remember it before it was all ruined [19, p.92].

Це твій дім, рідний дім, і ти пам 'ятаєш, який він був гарний. [11, c.944]

Such a phenomenon as “article” does not exist in the Ukrainian language that is why in the process of translation the meaning of the articles must be rendered with the help of other means. If it has no special value, it is often omitted.

There was a blow on the door that made it quiver; and then it began to grind slowly open, driving back the wedges [19, p.12].

У двері гримнули так, що вони здригнулись, а потім почали повільно відчинятися, виштовхуючи клини [11,c.307].

Sometimes the indefinite article is used in its original numeric meaning “one”, e. g.:

At the end of an hour they had gone a mile, or maybe little more, and had descended many flights of stairs [19, p.17].

За годину вони пройшли милю, може трохи більше, і подолали багато таких сходових маршів [11, с.309].

The substitution of parts of speech also occurs. Noun is that part of speech which falls under this transformation more often than other parts of speech. For instance, noun ^ verb, adjective ^ adverb

Bilbo was very rich and very peculiar, and had been the wonder of the Shire for sixty years, ever since his remarkable disappearance and unexpected return [12, p.48]. Більбо був дуже багатий і дуже своєрідний; його вважали дивовижею Ширу вже шістдесят років, відтоді як він раптово зник і несподівано повернувся [11, c.29]. The substitution of parts of speech leads to the substitution of parts of the sentence.

Lexical transformations. Lexical means used in the translation are called lexical variants. The lexical variant is determined by its contextual meaning. Lexical transformations may change the semantic core of a translated word. They are applied in the translation when one comes across a non-standard language unit, for example, personal names, words denoting objects (things), phenomena and notions which are characteristic of the SL culture but do not exist in the TL. Names of personages, places are either translated or transcribed, many - transliterated.

Transliteration. The notion of transliteration is based on representing written characters of one language by the characters of another language. For example:

Good Smeagol comes [17, р.13].

Добрий Смеаґол прийшов [11, с.641].

Transcription. Translation transcription is an interlinguistic operation as it deals with two languages: the sounds of the source language word are rendered by the letters of the target language. For instance:

“I'll give you Sharkey, you dirty thieving ruffians! ” says she, and ups with her umbrella and goes for the leader, near twice her size [19, р.84].

"Я вам покажу Шаркі, ви, злодюги паршиві!" ? закричала вона і з парасолькою поперла на них, просто на ватажка, а він удвічі вищий за неї [11, с.940].

The phonetic divergence between the Ukrainian and the English languages is considerable, thus we may speak only about partial or conventional rendering of the words.

Loan translation (calque, blueprint) is the translation of a word or a phrase by parts. It is not always a mere mechanical operation as the translator may need to change case forms, the quantity of words in word combinations, affixes, word order and the like. Calque translation can be very tricky as it may result in “translator's false friends”, i. e. misleading translations: high school - средня школа (not вища школа). Here is an example of this transformation:

Men call it Deadmen's Dike, and they fear to tread there [15, p.58].

Люди називають його Канавою Мерців і бояться туди ходити [11, c.233].

Lexico-semantic substitution is putting one word in place of another. It often results from the different semantic structures of the source language and target language words. These transformations make it possible to avoid misunderstanding in the process of reading (specification, modulation) and verbosity (generalization, modulation).

Specification or substituting words with a wider meaning with words of a narrower meaning is also found:

. and the older folk suddenly found their reminiscences in welcome demand [12, р.50].

. і старі гобіти раптом знайшли зацікавлених слухачів для своїх спогадів [11, с.30].

The particular semantics of the words is recognized from the context.

Generalization is substituting words of a narrower meaning with those of a wider meaning. The reason for generalization in translating can be that the particular meaning expressed by the source language word might be irrelevant for the translation receptor. When this information is not important for the receptor the translator can generalize:

The day came like fire and smoke [13, р.166].

Світанок був схожий на пожежу [11, с.373].

Modulation is a logical development of the notion expressed by the word. A tradition of the word combination and acceptability of collocation is to be taken into account. Such phenomena as metaphorization and demetaphorization are common here: Some of Frodo's friends came to stay and help him with the packing: there was Fredegar Bolger and Folco Boffin, and of course his special friends Pippin Took and Merry Brandybuck [12, р.153].

Деякі друзі Фродо перебралися до нього і допомагали пакувати речі: Фредеґар Виприн і Фалько Мудрин, і, звісно ж, нерозлийвода Піпін Тук і Мері Брендіцап [11, с.73].

Metaphorization is observed in the above-mentioned sentence. In the following example metaphorization is accompanied by phraseologisation:

“One trouble after another! said Frodo, looking nearly as much alarmed as if Pippin had declared the lane was the slot leading to a dragon's den [12, р. 204].

? З дощу та під ринву! - прохопився Фродо так сполохано, ніби Піпін заявив, що доріжка веде до драконового лігва [11, с.95].

Complex (lexico-grammatical) transformations. This type of transformations concerns both the lexical (semantic) and grammatical level, i. e. it touches upon structure and meaning. The following can be associated with them:

Antonymic translation is describing the situation by the target language from the contrary angle. It is often accompanied by the substitution of parts of speech:

Time wore on, but it seemed to have little effect on Mr. Baggins [12, p.48].

Час минав, але його не зачіпав [11, с.29].

The substitution is observed here: Mr. Baggins ^ його (noun ^ pronoun).

Now, Pippin my lad don't forget Gildor's saying - the one Sam used to quote. [15, p.171-172].

? Пітне, хлопчику, пригадай слова Ґілдора, ті, які любив повторювати Сем [11, с.550].

In a number of cases the shift of negation is observed. With the help of it ideas are not expressed in too a categoric tone.

Explicatory translation (explication), that is, rewording the meaning into another structure so that the receptor will have a better understanding of the phrase. It is defined as the technique of making explicit in the target text information that is imlicit in the source text. This transformation is often accompanied by the extension of the structure, the addition of new elements. The reason for which this transformation is made is that the target text receptor has different background knowledge. Sometimes this transformation is required because of the dissimilarity between the language structures, with the source language structure being incomplete for the target language. Here is an example:

And taking Frodo's hand in his, he left the hill of Cerin Amroth and came there never again as living man [13, р.71].

І взявши Фродо за руку, він покинув пагорб Керін-Амрота й за свого життя вже ніколи туди не повертався [11, с.333].

Compensation is a deliberate introduction of some additional element in the target text to make up for the loss of a similar element in the source text. The main reason for this transformation is a vocabulary lacuna in the target language.

For a moment he relapsed into his old Gollum-manner. We are famisshed, yes famisshed we are, precious, he said. What is it they eats? Have they nice fisshes? [16,р.4^1].

На якийсь час він повернувся до колишньої манери говорити. ? Ми голодні, сстрашшенно голодні, сстрашшенно, дорогесенький. А шчо вони будуть їссти? Ссмачненьку рибку? [11, с.581].

The way Gollum speaks is odd. His grammar is incorrect. He lisps. To achieve the same effect in the translation O. Feshovets, the translator, uses incorrect grammatical forms in the TL, transcribes the Ukrainian word “що" ^ “шчо”, doubles (in some examples - even triples) the consonants (especially, “с, з, ш”) not necessarily in the same words as in the SL. Gollum's manner of uttering thoughts makes the reader feel frightened due to the snakelike hissing of his.

On scrutinizing a number of examples we become aware of the fact that it is close to impossible to do without transformations in the process of translating. Resorting to several transformations remains the common phenomenon. We come to conclusion that the most widespread grammatical transformation among the examined examples is grammatical substitution. Among lexical transformations, lexico-semantic substitutions (specification) are prevailing in the TL text. The most frequent lexico - grammatical transformation is antonymic translation.

The translation of the book such as “The Lord of the Rings" requires out-of-the - way diligence. On the one hand, in the process of translation O. Feshovets applied different transformations but, on the other hand, nothing new was added to the content of the SL text.

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