Example

Actualisation of semantic invariant

Comments

1. One lives and learns [6, с. 4].

One's living and learning + is generally objective.

An English saying reflects a universally known truth.

2. The Volga flows into the Caspian Sea [9].

The Volga's flowing into the Caspian Sea + is objectively known.

Such a statement describes an objective truth which is common knowledge among people.

3. I sleep here. My father sleeps in his study [6, с. 4].

My sleeping here and my father's sleeping in his study + is known and accepted in this community.

The speaker refers to the tradition or rule observed in his/her family.

4. Looking back, does it surprise you that she left [10]?

Looking back, + is the general surprise objective to you + that she left?

The speaker foregrounds the main, general characteristics of the action which make it possible to grasp the mere fact of its occurrence at present. In such situations (with feelings expressed by the verbs shock, surprise, amaze, etc.) we usually understand that the action of emotive impact happens on the basis of its abstracted notional features, there is no special need to emphasize sensual perception.

5. “But you can't jaunt off-line. I only just found you, I can't let you go.” “Jaunt off-line,” she says, and purses her lips. “You talk like Steven.” [9]

Your talking + is generally understood in this community ₊ like Steven's.

The speaker analytically infers this by drawing parallels and comparisons in his/her mind; therefore, the action is described on the basis of the speaker's understanding rather than visual perception.

6. And I just remember this - this young voice saying, I give up, I give up, I give up, we're sorry, but, you know, please don't kill me [9].

My giving up + is objective and actual in the present.

It is the main objective characteristic of the action (the fact of losing) that is relevant to the speaker in this situation, i.e. he/she declares himself/herself a loser at present. There is no reference to one's subjective experience and psychological state of mind affected by the immediate action of giving up.

7. The next train leaves at 5 [6, с. 4].

The next train's leaving at 5 + is known in this community.

The timetable under which the train is due to arrive and leave is publicly known, that is why the speaker refers to common knowledge. Interestingly, the use of the present tense in this example can be easily explained by the subject's perceiving the action as part of the presently existing, valid schedule.

8. Where do we go from here [6, с. 5]?

Where (to what place) from here is our going + understood in this community?

Pragmatically, the speaker asks for instruction as to where he/she should go, which means he/she clarifies the presently existing knowledge regarding directions.

Example

Actualisation of semantic invariant

Comments

1. Look! The car is driving by [9].

I see + the car in the middle We would presume that the sense of immediate observation can be effectively conveyed by the added semantic insertion ` in the middle of' indicating immediacy as such. of driving by.

The speaker is identified with the observer visually perceiving the action.

2. In fiscal year 2014, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement deported 315,943 people who were in the country without legal permission. “You are always thinking about that in the back of your mind,” Garcia said [9].

Thinking about that in the back of your mind always + affects your psychological state.

In such situations (with the adverbs always and constantly) reference is made to the observer's subjective psychological experience of being continuously affected by the action as distinct from the PS usage indicating the objective characteristics of the action.

3. My mom always comments on what I'm wearing [10].

My mom always comments on what + she immediately sees me wearing.

While the first action is represented as an objective fact, the second one is described from the observer's (mother's) perspective, whose subjective visual perception is highly relevant (she criticizes what she sees, what she is affected by).

4. Don't call us at 5. At this time we are usually having dinner [9].

At this time we are usually + in the middle of having dinner.

In spite of the characteristic of usualness and repeatedness, the described action does not represent an objective occurrence and common knowledge in a certain society, it is viewed by the speaker differently: the action is observed by and somehow supposed to affect a concrete subject whose figure is relevant in this situation (someone who is going to call the speaker at 5).

5. Tom is picking me up at 7 o'clock tonight [6, с. 8].

Tom's picking me up at 7 o'clock tonight + immediately affects my state of mind.

Technically, the situation does not refer to the speaker's literal present and is traditionally viewed as a reference to the future. Indeed, in this situation we seem to be dealing with the same present action, but which is perceived by the observer indirectly (metaphorically, i.e. as if now, at this point of time). The speaker's state of mind is being affected by Tom's picking him/her up tonight in such a way that the speaker is presently preparing for this action, waiting for it, etc., thus changing his/her behavior in his/her immediate present.

6. I am not staying here overnight. People who go into the hospital never come out [9]!

My not staying here overnight is + my immediate psychological state of mind.

The statement is pragmatically interpreted

as the speaker's personal blunt refusal, which is easily explained by his/her affected psychological state of mind.

7. “Good morning,” Mr. Brann said, and moved in a lanky shuffle along the aisle. “What are you hearing in town about

Burdick's attempts to get into Congress [9]?

What immediately affects you (your state of mind) + while hearing in town about …?

These 'marginal' situations of usage exemplify the speakers' simple choice to present the states of being able to hear and understand as something active and changing personally and subjectively experienced in the present. In other words, the sentences may be rephrased as 'What news is coming / what news are you receiving / what new things are you learning?' and 'I'm not feeling / behaving / talking like I understand you'.

8. “Because, Hassan, information is only as reliable as the question that creates it.” “Mister Graves, I am not understanding you” [9].

My not understanding you + immediately affects me

(my state of mind).