Word-building processes vs slang subsystem

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Sumy State University

Word-building processes vs slang subsystem

Doctor of Philological Sciences, Professor S.O. Shvachko

Student E.F. Korzh

Annotation

The article in question deals with the word-building processes vs slang subsystem. Language is a special system of various social processes are being reflected. Speech reflects the social stratification in the variety of forms and patterns. Researchers pay considerable attention to the sociolectal dimension of language which consists of the sub-standards including slang. The formation of new units, verbal speech is enriched and multiplied. The branch of linguistics that studies the process of creating derivative words and their mechanism is called derivatology.

The article deals with the study of most productive means of word formation which are conversion, abbreviation, compounding and their role in meaning of new slangisms in English. Polysemy (a semantic shift) stands apart. The conclusions drawn in the article are available for the theoretical and practical endozones of the linguistic.

Keywords: lexicon of limited use, slangism, word-building, conversion, abbreviation, compounding, polysemy.

Анотація

Стаття присвячена словотвірним процесам vs сленговій підсистемі. Мова є тією особливою системою, у якій знаходять відображення різні суспільні процеси. Мова віддзеркалює стратифікацію суспільства, що виражається у варіативності форм та патернів. Дослідники приділяють значну увагу саме соціолектичному виміру мови, яка складається з мовних субстандартів різного ступеню кодифікованості. Шляхом утворення нових слів збагачується та примножується мова. Розділ мовознавства, який вивчає процес творення похідних слів та його механізм називається дериватологія.

У статті маркуються найбільш продуктивні засоби словотвору, якими є конверсія, словоскладання, абревіація, їх роль у творенні сленгових слів в англійській мові. Полісемія виділяється серед інших вербальних засобів, це - семантичне зрушення. Висновки релевантні для теоретичних і практичних ендозон лінгвістики.

Ключові слова: лексика обмеженого вжитку, сленгізм, словотвір, конверсія, абревіація, словоскладання,полісемія.

Аннотация

Статья посвящена словообразовательным процессам vs сленговой подсистеме. Язык каждого народа - это та особая система, в которой находят отражение общественные процессы. Язык отражает стратификацию общества, выражающуюся в вариативности форм ее патернов. Исследователи уделяют значительное внимание социолектичному измерению языка, состоящего из языковых субстандартов разной степени кодификованости, в том числе сленга. Путем образования новых слов и значений обогащается и приумножается языковой корпус. Раздел языкознания, изучающий процесс создания производных слов, и их механизма, называется дериватология.

Ключевые слова: лексика ограниченного употребления, сленгизм, словообразование, конверсия, аббревиация, словосложение, полисемия.

The objective of the article is word-building of slang lexicon.

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, the science of language. The term lexicology is composed of two Greek morphemes: lexicon “word, phrase” and logos “learning”, “endozone of knowledge”. Thus, the literal meaning of the term lexicology is “the science of the word”.

Lexicology as a branch of linguistics has its own objects and methods of scientific research. Its basic task is study and systematic description of vocabulary in terms of its origin, development and current use. Lexicology is concerned with words, free word - groups, phraseological units, and morphemes which make up words.

Word is the basic unit of language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis. The word is a structural and semantic entity within the language system. Etymologically the vocabulary of the English language is far from being homogeneous. It consists of two layers - the native stock of words and the borrowed stock of words. Numerically the borrowed stock of words is considerably larger than the native stock of words. In fact native words comprise only 30 % of the total number of words in the English vocabulary but the native words form the bulk of the most frequent words actually used in speech and writing. Besides the native words have a wider range of lexical and grammatical valency, they are highly polysemantic and productive in forming word clusters and set expressions.

The purpose of the article is to consider with the types of word-building of slang lexicon, to define:

- notion of word-building, its status in the English language;

- patterns of English slang, the ways they are treated in methodology.

The complexed methods are used in the article, among them - descriptive, lexicographical analysis of synthesis and onto-gnoseological.

Practical and theoretical value of paper is verified by linguo-cognitive approach to the object of investigation.

The attention is being paid to the process of word-building translation.

In the middle of XX century, descriptive method dominated in German and English linguistic, subject matter (lexical and phraseological units). Later English slang came to be considered in the pragmatic dimension.

A language develops with a great speed. Every generation changes it a lot. One word can be understood in different ways and can change its meaning so much that it could hardly be recognized. For example, in the 1950s' Beat Generation all good things were called “cool”, but in the early 1960s, the word “ace” began to be used, then in hippy vocabulary it transformed into “groovy”. The puzzle effect comes to use.

Deborah Tannen, University Professor and Professor of Linguistics at Georgetown University, an author of many books and articles on how the language of everyday conversation affects relationships mentioned: “Technology creates greater opportunities for coming up with new words” [1].

Slang primarily reflects the worldview of various youth groups and their value dominants. Using the same language features in different types of discourse allows to reach a common code of communication with the youth audience and reduces the distance between addresser and addressees, influences the reader's opinion before manipulating consciousness. Slang is normatively lowered, emotionally colored, functionally limited by the linguistic subcode of the same group, in which the worldview and values are reproduced, performing the functions of identification, consolidation, hidden prestige, delimitation. Slang is a complex structural organization that includes a few narrow subsystems, depending on the belonging to certain social groups, region or gender. Slang can be differentiated primarily by the age characteristics of the participants. The difficulties of slang word comprehension lead to the difficulties in translation. Slang is continually changing, it is advisable to translate it adequately, to find out how slangy words came into language and in what situations they are available. This specific language has to be studied very carefully as new words appear every day and become a part of a linguistic environment very fast. The foundation for lexicographical and sociolinguistic study of slang has been laid by such prominent scholars as E. Partridge, H. Wentworth, S.B. Flexner, H. L. Mencken, Ch. Fries, R. Spiers, I. R. Halperin, M. M. Makovskyi, V. О. Khomiakov, A. D. Bieliaieva and others.

Slang comprehension is nowadays so important as never before. Tony Thorne, editor of the Dictionary of Contemporary Slang, says that teen and street talk is something new never - known before; their language is pronounced in the ways, never used before. And it's not just a collection of words anymore. Young people created their own language and are proud of it. The most creative modern makers of slang are pupils and students as they have some knowledge about official literary language, young and old slang (if interested), family and workplace slang, local and global and different kinds of street slangs.

A category of words that are often confused with slangs are jargon (the specialized vocabulary of a particular group). Jargons (in California, for instance, surfers' jargon) sometimes are transferred to the general slang vocabulary of ordinary speakers. The slang expressions come from a variety of sources. Many are derived directly from the standard vocabulary with little or no change at all: they may be revivals of old standard words that are no longer use or new uses of standard words or earlier slang expressions. For instance, earlier slang bug “to annoy”, a transitive verb, has given rise to an intransitive verb meaning “to be annoying”; standard informal chow “food” becomes a verb “to eat”; standard perpetrate “to commit (an offense)” can now be used as “to act fraudulently”.

Slang expressions are coined by the same processes as words known now as standard and literary. Expressions may be formed as metaphors and other figures of speech (dead as a doornail). Generalization (fink, originally “a strikebreaker”, later “a betrayer or disappointed') or vice-versa (heap, a run - down car) can be used. Words may be clipped, or abbreviated (mike, microphone), and acronyms are possible (TDI, awol, snafu). Foreign words can be borrowed (baloney, from Bologna). Some of slang words are created basing on other words, or other slang words. There are several possible ways: 1) Change of meanings - a shifting of meaning from one thing to another, for example: ride - initially used to mean “a car”, now refers to sneakers; frenemy - (a combination of words “friend” and “enemy”) - “a person who appears to be a friend but, at the same time does not like you”; 2) Combinations of meanings - “combinations of thoughts that create a new word”, for example: greycation -“ having grandparents join your vacation”; iceman - “a friend with steel nerves”; flamed - “to have taken everything too seriously”; awesomity - “the highest level of awesome”; 3) New words for new activities - periodically there appears a need to describe new innovational or Internet activities, an example is a usage of words in social networking: to JHend and to unfriend - “to add or remove someone from the friends list who can see your profile on Facebook or other social media networks”; follow and unfollow - “to add or remove someone to the list of people' posts viewing on Twitter”.

We will try to consider derivatology as a source of enrichment of the vocabulary. Word formation (derivatology) - is a branch of linguistics that studies the process of creating derivative words, its mechanism. Derivative words occur not randomly but according to certain rules and patterns. So, word formation - is the doctrine of derivation, which is used for the preservation and replenishment of the vocabulary, ensuring nomination process. Lay terms are very closely related to the word building, because they serve as a basis, the main source of output units which create all types of derivatives and compound words [2, p. 40].

The crucial role in enriching the vocabulary belongs to the formation of new words by using internal resources, which dispose each language. Laws of formation, functioning, structure and classification of derivative words studies discipline which is traditionally called word building. The term is not entirely lucky because of its ambiguity: on the one hand, it denotes the process of formation of words in the language (vocabulary is constantly updated), on the other hand, as it was already mentioned, it is called a scientific discipline, a branch of linguistics that studies the whole range of issues, laws associated with the creation of words, or otherwise - the doctrine of word building [3, p. 52].

There are three types of word building: high - productive, semi-productive and non- productive.The productivity is characterized by pattern frequency of creating new words.

Most linguists believe that the main processes of English and German derivation are abbreviation, conversion and compounding. Polysemy stands apart, it is a semantic shift.

Non productive are slang words made by reduplication, change of the sound, contamination. We consider 4 methods of slang reproduction: conversion, compounding, abbreviation and polysemy [4, p. 110].

Conversion is a kind of word formation involving the creation of a word (of a new word class) from an existing word (of a different word class) without any change in form, which is to say, derivation using only zero. It is a source of homonomy [5, p. 27].

Note should be taken that the words related by conversion are of different parts of speech. A slang word to attitude “to exhibit hostility to someone”, the original meaning is “position”, “thought”. The word blazed “to be under the influence of drugs”. Slang to boat “to transfer from prison”, although in the original version was noun “boat”. Slang word to bounce “to be lost” is an example of conversion. To rat on someone “to rivet”. Slang to elbow “to be friends with somebody”. The word to nail “to get lost”, it comes from the noun “nails”. To cage “to take the rap”, this word is converted, because the original word is “cage”, “cabin”. Slang to nurse “to go after”, has a completely different meaning “nurse”. The word to place “to come to place second”.

Compounding is another type of word - building. It is the process when new words are produced by combining two or more stems. This type of word - building is one of the three most productive ones in Modern English; the other two are conversion and affixation.

There are at least 2 aspects of composition that present special interest. The first is the structural aspect. Compounds are words produced by combining two or more stems which occur in the language as free forms.

We consider the examples of slangisms, which were formed by compounding. The word Cell Confinement “disciplinary detention, confining prison to cell for 24 hour increments”. Chasing the Dragon - “looking for heroin on the yard”. Also called, chasing the horse. Cheese Eater “a person, who is called an informer”. Chin Check "to hit someone in the jaw to see if he will stand up for himself”. Slangism Clipper Pass “special shaving pass that allows prisoners with medical conditions to shave only once a week or to wear short beards”. The word combination Coffee and a Day “out in just over a day”. The term Convict Boss “a prisoner given authority in a prison system”, “an officer who conducts his business and does not hassle or instigate trouble”. The term Dead mouth “told by an officer to be remained silent until told otherwise instructed”.

Slang Deuce Less means “the difference between federal and local time”. The word combination Diesel Therapy “constant transfers to keep a prisoner from associating with others or to discourage particular activity”. Ding Wing “place, where mentally ill prisoners are housed”. A mentally ill prisoner may be called a "ding." Dipping in the Kool Aid “trying to enter a conversation when a person has no business doing it”. Slang Double Cell “housing two prisoners in a cell designed for one”. Down Letter “a letter from the parole board notifying a prisoner that more time must be served”. Slang word combination Dressed Out “to be assaulted with urine, feces or any liquid mixture by a prisoner”. Slang Dry Cell refers to word-building “to put a prisoner on dry watch, without water, when he is suspected of packing contraband” [6].

It should be noted that the understanding of word-formation excludes semantic word - building as well as shortening, sound - and stress - interchange which traditionally are referred, as has been mentioned above, to minor ways of word - formation. The process of shortening consists in clipping a part of word; as a result we get a new lexical unit. The process of shortening is not confined only to words; many word-groups also become shortened in the process of communication. Therefore, the term “shortening of words” is to be regarded as conventional, as it involves the shortening of both words and word - groups.

The problems of abbreviations (i.e. shortened lexical units) as specific language phenomena in modern languages attract the attention of many researchers, and have been considered in numerous articles and separate researches of Ukrainian, Russian and foreign authors. Towards the most circumstantial works relating to that problem we can refer D. Alekseeva, O. Jespersen, V. Pavlova, T. Pilze, M. Segal, L. Shelyahovsky, E. Voloshina, R. Walse and others. B. Voloshin and V. Borisov who described abbreviations and their relationships with generating units. The philologists I. Stern, M. Schlauch, L. Shelyahovska and L. Sapogova studied the basic principles of shortened lexical units [7].

Abbreviations began to proliferate in the 19th century and had been prevalent since then for writing or speaking, especially, when referring to the myriad of new organizations, bureaucratic entities, and technological products typical of industrial societies [8].

An abbreviation (from Latin brevis “short”) is shortened form of a word or a phrase. Usually, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from a word or a phrase. For example, a word abbreviation can itself be represented by the following abbreviations: abbr., abbrv., or abbrev.

Abbreviations should not be confused with contractions or acronyms (including initialisms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three are nominated by the term “abbreviation” in loose “parlance” [9, p. 167].

Shortening produces words belonging to the same part of speech as original words. Mostly nouns are affected by shortening. In most cases a shortened word exists in the vocabulary together with the longer word from which it is derived and usually has the same lexical meaning differing only in emotive charge and stylistic reference. In the process of communication words and word groups can be shortened. The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra linguistic. In Modern English many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more information in the shortest time.

Abbreviation EME “the Mexican Mafia, a Southern Hispanic prison gang, based on the Spanish pronunciation of the letter "m." ”. Five-O “an officer”. GNC LIST “Got Nothing Coming”. Prisoners who have been identified by officers as having nothing coming to them. Slangism ICC “Institutional Classification Committee; Interstate Corrections

Compact”. Abbreviation KOP “Keep on Person”, “medications that a prisoner is allowed to keep with his or her property, to avoide going to a pill line every day”. LOP “loss of privileges, a particular kind of cell restriction”. Slang MERD “Minimum Eligible Release Date for a specified term in security housing”. Abbreviation PC “Protective custody”, “prisoners may be placed in protective custody for a number of reasons, they may have snitched on a gang, the nature of an offense (such as child molestation) was leaked to others, or there is some weakness that would make them a victim”. It may be referred to as PS “protective segregation” [10, p. 148].

Another well-known type is polysemy, when the word is used in a new sense. Most English words are polysemantic. It should be noted that the wealth of expressive resources of a language largely depends on the degree to which polysemy has developed in the language. It is claimed that a language lacks words if the need arises for the same word to name different phenomena. Actually, it is exactly the opposite: if each word is found to be capable of conveying at least two concepts instead of one, the expressive potential of the whole vocabulary increases twofold. Hence, a well - developed polysemy is not a drawback but a great advantage of a language. On the other hand, it should be pointed out that the number of sound combinations that human speech organs can produce is limited. Therefore at a certain stage of language development the production of new words by morphological means becomes limited, and polysemy becomes increasingly important in providing the means for enriching the vocabulary. Hence, the process of enriching the vocabulary does not consist merely in adding new words to it, but, also, in the constant development of polysemy. The system of meanings of any polysemantic word develops gradually, mostly over the centuries, as more and more new meanings are either added to old ones, or oust some of them. So the complicated processes of polysemy development involve both the appearance of new meanings and the loss of old ones. Yet, the general tendency with English vocabulary at the modern stage of its history is to increase the total number of its meanings and in this way to provide for a quantitative and qualitative growth of the language expressive resources.

Slang hammer “a beautiful woman”, originally meant “beater”. The word monkey “a simpleton or a person”. Slang dog “rude person or not a good woman”. The verb “the interrogation”. The word pocket which is used when someone describes a person, who is big or when there is a hopeless situation. As a verb it is translated as to hang out in the club. If someone wants to go to a nightclub, one can say Let's go to room, because in the youth slang it has precisely the same meaning. The original meaning of the word roost is “chicken coop”, but as a slang “a place of residence”. If you hear when a drug taker says the word work, it does not mean “to labor”, but “a device for injection of narcotics”. The word shot is translated as “an attempt”, but young people use it when he addresses to his friend and says “Hey, shot!”. Noun wolf means not only “wolves”, but “a womanizer” [11, p. 217].

Consequently, some difficulties in English presents a definition of the compound word. It is one of the oldest types of derivation, that preserved productivity in English language at the present stage of its development. Especially important is the fact that English spelling is consistent that captures some derivation processes. Morphological feature sets morphological unity of the compound word unlike with word-combination. The morphological composition is presented very poorly and can therefore be used for a limited number of words.

It is worthy of note that the models of word building significantly differ from each other for certain characteristics, and their proportions in the process of word formation and replenishment of vocabulary , that fix new concepts and phenomena are not the same.

Conclusions

1. English slang is one of the language varieties in English language. It is the product of culture and society. It is a kind of sociolect.

2. The crucial role in enriching of the vocabulary belongs to the formation of new words by using internal resources, which dispose language.

3. The main types of English derivation are abbreviation, conversion, compounding and polysemy.

4. Conversion - is a highly productive way of coining new words in Modern English. Conversion is an affixless way of word - building, making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of part of speech without changing the morphemic shape of the original one.

5. Polysemy - is very characteristic of the English vocabulary due to the monosyllabic character of English words and the predominance of root words.

6. Word-building models significantly differ for certain characteristics, and their share in the process of word formation and enrichment of the English vocabulary with the units which fix new concepts and phenomena are not the same.

7. Shortening is represented as subtraction, in which part of the original word is taken away. Shortening correlates with the same part of speech. Mostly nouns are affected by shortening.

8. The development of slang cannot be separated from the society. As the society highly develops, the use of slang becomes more complicated. It is necessary for students to know more about English slang, in order to achieve a better understanding of culture and society

References

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