Peculiarities of translation of Russian borrowings in English

Having considered the Russian borrowing, crept into the English language from the earliest times to the Great October Socialist Revolution, we can conclude that the nature of these loans is very diverse, though still the predominant role played by words denoting concepts of the government, life and natural features of Russia. Several borrowing reflects the cultural and trade ties between Russia and Britain. In the XIX century in Russia begin to penetrate into the increasing number of political terms that appear in Russia in connection with the growth of a political movement. They are few, but they have already penetrated into other languages, thus acquiring an international character. This shows that the political events and social movement in Russia caused worldwide interest.

Birth October. FOURTH PERIOD. Occurs between languages live communication, interference. Already MV Lomonosov said path dictionary borrowing - neighborhood people, trade and other historical contacts. More recent observations have allowed Russian scientist SK Bulich noted at the end of the XIX century, that it was due to contacts between peoples, "we do not find any language free from debt." We have already mentioned the link between language and history, language and a certain era, a certain ideology, a certain way of life: the life of the people is reflected in its language. Language, being directly related to human activity, reflects the changes in the industrial, social, political and other spheres of his life. First and foremost, these changes are reflected in the vocabulary of the language. When life is changing, and changing something in the language. Some of the words go first, others arise. These new words to express new concepts, new developments and realities. This creates a new history of the language. It is reflected in new words new life.

Particularly strong changes occur in the dictionary at the turning points of history. At such times, the language's vocabulary is in a state of rapid motion. Feed acquired and lost, leaving the use of words especially swift. Major global events are reflected not only in the language of the people in the stories which they occurred but also affect the languages of other nations. The greater, larger event, change, achievement, occurring in one country, the more attention they cause more interest in other countries, and the sooner the related ideas, concepts, and words denoting them penetrate into other languages. Only since the end of the XIX century in the English language, as in other languages, from Russian penetrate words associated with the growth of social and political liberation movement. In the twentieth century, when the socialist state was formed, Russian political terms have become known throughout the world, entered the international use and joined the vocabulary of most languages. In English, Russian steel commonly used words such as bolshevik, menshevik and others, demonstrating the interest of the British people to the political developments in Russia.

VV Akulenko rightly emphasizes that since the beginning of the twentieth century in the Russian underground and semi-legal literature, the writings of VI Lenin otshlifovyvat emergency of international terminology of Marxist-Leninist philosophy and party building - fist , Bolshevism , democratic centralism , frames , cell , self-criticism , a party line , etc. This terminology came into wide use and was largely borrowed from Western European languages after the Great October Socialist Revolution.

Changes caused by the Great October Socialist Revolution in the industrial, social, political and other spheres of life in Russia, and reflected on the vocabulary of the Russian language, which, in turn, could not exert any influence on all the world's languages, including English language . It is interesting to note here that many Russian words, such as the Bolshevik advice Leninist Komsomol work day, farm, Stakhanovite, five-year plan , appear in English soon after their appearance in the Russian language. Already in 1929 the use of English dictionaries fixed in the British press word Five - year - plan ' Five-Year Plan ', which appeared in Russian in 1928. In 1936 words stakhanovite, stakhanovism , arising in Russian language only in 1935, widely used British stamp and recorded in the dictionaries. Most of the words in postrevolutionary pores has a vibrant social dimension, even the old word, in its origin is not Russian, international, received a Russian language Soviet era and new sound recorded in dictionaries of other languages as Russianisms-sovietisms. So, two Russian language borrowed words agitation and propaganda , a new reflection enriched, converted into new Russian word-sovietisms droppings and this includes even meeting neologisms.

The modern meaning of the word propaganda (in Russian) - a political term - 'oral and printed activities of the party and class, having the aim to influence the ideology of the masses in a certain direction' is fixed to the beginning of the XX century. The term propaganda - 'distribute any ideas, views, knowledge through ongoing, in-depth and detailed explanation of the masses'. Already by mid-century socio-political term propaganda gets fairly widespread. Great October Socialist Revolution, the ideas of Marxism-Leninism stained these words aloud so that now they are perceived as Russianisms-sovietisms. Words agitation and propaganda got a bright social characteristics identified by the Soviet ideology, domestic use of these words in the Russian language.

The word expresses thinking on race, in word and our feelings, it is also a reflection of and national history and the present day, with all its diversity, with all its variety. That's why every word borrowed another language requires attention, and then it can tell a lot. Word - authorized representative of his country, its history and the present day.

As we already know, there is a household word, as if associated with a particular "national home", the inner life of the people. samovar, tea, brew soup - these words are often needed when talking about Russian way of life. Cognitive meaning of such words, countries vedcheskoe. Such words are like strokes, scenic swabs from genre-home pictures of Russian life. But there is wide public word vennogo range. Their sound is not limited to the scope Vaeth native language. Such words are associated with the genus tion element, but referred to the concepts they endure for the scope of this disaster. It is no longer touches domestic description of, and words related to the public with the knowledge - and the national and universal.

The emergence of the world's first socialist state - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the development of socialist production, culture and morality - all these factors have led to the emergence of a number of new words and expressions have been widely used not only in our country but also abroad.

Ideological influence of the Great October Socialist Revolution generates a stream of words, subsequently named Sovietisms denoting ideas, concepts, institutions associated with the revolution and socialist construction; these words are carriers of ideological content, which can not be fully expressed by other means. They come in other languages is not about one Russianisms as having been born in the Russian language. But , Russism term - it is only the national meta. The second name - Sovietism - meta social, ideological. Thus, in the words highlighted and emphasized their social significance: sovietist 'member of the organization, a supporter of the Land of Soviets'; sovietism 'Soviet power', 'management system through the councils', sovietise - sovietisation 'do the Soviets, sovietize'; sovietic 'Soviet'; Sovietdom 'Tips', 'Soviet power'. Penetrated immediately after the transfer of power to the Soviets of the Russian word ' advice 'in the British and American press at first tried to translate the English word council, which is the equivalent of the word advice within the meaning of the administrative, public body, such as the Council of Ministers - Council of ministers, and in the sense of the meeting - the military council - Army Council. However, the word council to send a new, political values, which acquired the word ' advice ', starting designate a public authority, not caught, because could not express all that range of new concepts that have been made in the Russian word ' Council '. Word Soviet (Councils) was recorded English dictionary in 1917, in subsequent years 1918-1919 it was frequent enough in English and American periodicals, fiction. This word does not require explanation, did not stand out quotes, and was used as a well-known. During the same years 1920-1931 as evidenced by English dictionaries were created based on the Russian word advice - advice to a number of English word-formations: the Soviet 'Soviet Republic', 'The Soviet Union', 'Soviet power', now often phrases Soviet Russia, Soviet Union - Union - Soviet Government - Soviet - Soviets 'revolutionary authorities', 'The Soviet Union', 'management system'. As we see, in word-formation on foreign soil affects alien ideology, giving alien connotations derived words ( sovietisation 'with ovetizirovanie').

Rebirth of the new socialist state and chat with him led Sovietisms flow in languages of different countries. Entered the English words associated with the state system: Soviet ' advice ', bolshevik ' Bolshevik ' , bolshevism ' Bolshevism ', Leninism ' Leninism ' , commissar ' Commissioner ', Komsomol ' Komsomol ' , later became the second value Komsomolets. New forms of socialist Agriculture got reflected in the words of kolkhoz ' farm ' , Sovkhoz ' farm '. Development of science in such words as synchrotron ( synchrophasotron ) and many others.

Word Bolshevik Russian language for our pores already historicism. It means' followers and supporters of Bolshevism , a communist. " As is known, the name ' Bolshevik 'originated in 1903 at the II Congress of the RSDLP, when supporters VI Lenin received the majority of votes in the elections to the central institutions of the Party. Therefore, Lenin and his followers became known as the Bolsheviks and their opponents received minority vote - the Mensheviks. So within the RSDLP at the II Congress in 1903 formed two factions - the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. Both terms have been borrowed different languages to describe these two political factions. But first, in the foreign press have tried to reinvent the word Bolshevik using tracing paper majoritarian and maximalist. Both of these words to convey concepts prisoner in our word Bolshevik , not entrenched, and the word bolshevik became public and understood by all. English dictionaries fixed word Bolshevik since 1917: Bolshevik 'member of the Revolutionary most RSDLP', 'member of the Russian Communist Party', 'member of the Communist Party of any country', 'a supporter of the party of the Bolsheviks , Marxist-Leninist, a nonpartisan Bolshevik '. Dictionaries have also noted a Russian Bolshevik 'Russian Bolshevik '. Since that 1917 hit the vocabulary pages and derived words, already arisen on English soil - adjectives Bolshevist ' Bolshevik 'and the second adjective with the same meaning, but no less widespread bolshevistic . In 1919-1920 marked dictionaries practically existed before bolshevise and bolshevisation 'bring to Bolshevism , make him a supporter. "

We note some of Sovietisms, paced in the first years of its existence in other languages. Word clean- headed chain neologisms witness ing the presence of an entirely different assessment and understanding of labor. In the 20s formed in Russian language and transcended the various combinations, for example, labor discipline ( Labour discipline ). The country has entered a new economic policy ka ( New Economic policy ) (1921). Place in the country but vye social processes - collectivization ( collectivise, collectivisation ) (1928), which caused additional to the current names of the new realities: the farm ( Collective and State farm, kolkhoz ) (1933), State Farm ( Sovkhoz, State farm ) (1936) , the MTS ( Machine - tractor station, tractor station ) , workdays ( Labour days ) , team leader ( Leader ) .

In press about the Soviet Union and abroad reflected the process of industrialization ( Industrialisation ) (from late 1926). Cultural Revolution gives a general elimination of illiteracy as a result of compulsory primary tion, and then secondary education, and also occurs Tse ly number of new concepts and realities: the elimination of illiteracy completely ( liquidation of illiteracy, eradication of Illiteracy ), the Workers' Faculty ( worker 's Faculty ) , Rabkor, working reporter ( worker Correspondent ), wall newspaper, wall newspaper ( wall newspaper ).

There are new children's and youth communist profit organizations: children's communist organization tion of VI Lenin (1921) - the young pioneer . Already in 1929, the organization was established in 25 countries. Word pioneer a new conceptualized in these and other countries of the world: from pioneer 'scout, engineer, soldier, INTS promising way for the army ',' man, but paving new ways in any field 'to pioneer 'communitarians Statistical children's organization '. Under the influence of Russian reality and through the Russian language is the new meaning of the word pioneer penetrates into English, thus increasing the value and scope of this long-standing use of the English word. In 1918 on the initiative of VI Lenin Communist Union created Molo bowl - Komsomol. By 1928 such organizations arose whether in 43 countries. The name of the trace was at times ITATION languages: Young Communist League. Word cadres , the formerly in English meaning 'military personnel', now under the influence of the Russian language, acquired the meaning ' frames ',' leading workers in certain sectors of the economy ' .

The English word red (red), the basic meaning of which - a sign of color, influenced by tracing Russian expressions - Red Corner ( red corner ), Red Guard ( Red Guards ), the Red Army ( Red Army ) - in these formations sign loses color. Under the influence of the Russian language adjective red substantiviruetsya and used as a synonym words bolshevik - Communist and revolutionary.

Expands compatibility regular words, which reflects a new life with new needs, requirements ments of, views. For example, the range of combinations with the word socialism is sharply increasing. If on the first half of the XIX century was recorded one combination ' socialist formalism - utopian socialism ' , then after 1917 led to a new life such combinations: the construction of socialism ism ( construction of Socialism ) , the building of socialism ( Building of Socialism ) , to build socialism ( to build Socialism ) , the builders of socialism ( builders of Socialism ) , to ensure the victory of socialism ( to Ensure the victory of Socialism ) , the birthplace of socialism ( Homeland of Socialism ) , economic cal foundations of socialism ( Economic Foundations of Socialism ) , the struggle for socialism ( Struggle for Socialism ), etc. New terminology arise from a combination of figurative meanings, like definition of the word: an invincible fortress of socialism ( Indestructible Fortress of Socialism ) , Cultural Front ( Front Cultural ).

The development of socialist agriculture and Russian agricultural science was the basis for the emergence of English words in vernalization (jarovisation) , spring wheat (spring wheat) and the formation of a verb forms already in the system ang liyskogo language to jarovise (jarovising) 'jarovize'. Also, there are words podzol ' podzolic soil ', which was formed from the adjective podzolic' podzolic '; winter wheat ( winter wheat ) , agrobiology, agricultural machinery , etc.

Each era is reflected in language, chooses his words and creates signals, words, symbols, words, milestones, based on which you can recreate a picture of a past life. Such words as though are on the front lines, many of them cross the border of the national language and becomes vyatsya or borrowed words in a foreign language, or by entering into several languages at once transformed into internationalism. Reading those words, guess the EPO xy their time. birth and life in his native language. Rationalisation Proposals ' rationalization proposals ', rationalisers ' innovators '- these words came into the English language in the sky period of peaceful construction. A stormovik ' Forward ', Yak ' yak-plane ', partisan ' partisans 'asset but functioned in English or include in its dictionary in the Great Patriotic War: " Stormoviks Smashed up about 100 enemy »( Stormtroopers killed about 100 enemies) (Sov. War News Weekly, 17.XII. 1942, p. 2); "A. S. Yakovlev WHO Created the Famous Yak fighter series DURING the War "(Alexander Yakovlev, who created the famous series of fighting yaks during the war) (Rus. Techn. Research news, NY, 1947, v. 1, No. 2 ).

Not less bright and typical for our time combination of Camp of peace, Democracy and Socialism ' camp of peace , de democracy and socialism ', in the spirit of Socialism ' in the spirit of with socialism '. But the most striking word, which came in the last few years in all languages of the world, without a doubt, we should mention the word once order . Discharge- but BoE word in the diplomatic dictionary - wrote on April 6 in the journal "World Magazine" The Secretary-General Com munist Party of the United States, Gus Hall. In the Dictionary Webster it is defined as' a reduction of tension or hostility, especially in completely in relations between states. " "Many benefits nicknames Cold War barely digested this idea. For them it is a bitter pill "(" Pravda ", 1974, May 3). An American journalist in its observations about their international relations, wrote: " Detente - a word which has acquired its own meaning in Moscow. " "Moscow origin discharge, which was impact possible due to the persistent implementation of the Peace Programme, adopted by the XXIV Congress of the CPSU, it will always be for us, the Soviet people, especially proud of "(" Komsomolskaya Pravda ", 1975, July 24).

Some of the words that appeared in English in the 20 - 30 years of this century under the influence of the Russian language, disappeared without a trace, as they went out of use in the Russian language. It is words like vydvizhenetz ' nominee ' , bezbozhnik ' atheist ' , besprizornik ' homeless ' , depersonalization ' personal responsibility ', limitationist ' predelschik ' , lishenetz ' lishenets '.

Russian borrowing played a major role in improving the modern philosophical and political terms in all languages, including English. In addition to direct borrowing from Russian in English, a change compatibility number of words under the influence of the Russian language. So new Russian phraseological combinations, such as the hero of labor, socialist construction, unbreakable moral and political unity, the vital interests of the people, the development of virgin and fallow lands, given in English, such as new combinations of hero of Labour, Socialist construction, indestructable Moral - Political unity, vital interests of the people, Reclamation of virgin and unused Lands. emergence after World War II and the People's Democracies worldwide movement fighting for peace led to the emergence in the English language such as frazeologizmov Countries of New Democracy or just New Democracies, Peoples of good Will, Struggle for peace, democracy and Socialism, peace Champion.

Initially, Russian and borrowing copies from Russian words and expressions used in English only in the description of Soviet reality. However, some words have long been consumed and no direct relationship to our country. For example, the word stakhanovite naturally connected with Soviet reality indicates savershenno new attitude to work, typical of the socialist state. However, over time it is, like many other words, English only begins to be used in language and in a broader sense: «He is a Real Stakhanovite of the time "(" Times ", 1941). Judging by this article, the word stakhanovite not connected with work in production, and the work of a politician who very successfully fulfilling its responsibilities.

Semantic sphere of which the vast majority of British Sovietisms, is a complex socio-political concepts that arise during the construction of the world's first socialist state. Significant part Sovietisms reflects certain features of the state system of the USSR, the socialist economic system, socialist culture. They reflect a new attitude, unthinkable in a capitalist society, for example: Socialist emulation ' socialist competition ', shock - worker ' drummer '. Sharp class struggle that accompanied the building of socialism in our country, made its mark on British sovietisms example: wrecker ' pest ', purge ' cleaning ', kulak ' fist ' .

Sovietisms form . borrowing Russian post-October period in the English language are found in the following forms:

1) Borrowing Russian material form, so-called "self-borrowing." This full or phonetic borrowing, that is, those who have entered the English language in its native form of sound, of course, in a known manner modified in accordance with the English phonological system, for example: bolshevik, Soviet, Komsomol, Udarnik or with some changes in the affixes - yarovisation . Overwhelmingly these words retained unchanged inherent semantics. Phonetic borrowing of English Sovietisms relatively little. Some of them have become part of the English language and have a wide and constant use; others have now become less common. Group total loans expanded slowly.

2) Kalki, ie the creation of new words and collocations by literal translation of Russian words and phraseological units. When tracing is saved and the value and structural similarities to the original. And though not borrowed the words themselves, but borrowed concepts expressed by them. This group Sovietisms growing all along, taking a more and more new words reflecting more and more new concepts, such as: depersonalization ' personal responsibility ', Self - - Day ' workday ', dekulakisation ' cannibalization ', and sustainable denominative phrases like Five - year - plan ' Five Year Plan ', social work ' social work ' , house of Culture ' House of Culture ', Socialist emulation ' socialist competition ', Producers' Cooperative ' co-operatives ', Consumers' Cooperative ' consumer cooperatives ', Political guide ' political officer ', Red Army ' Red Army ', Machine - tractor - station ' machine-tractor Station ', Collective Agreement ' collective agreement ', People 's Court of Justice ' People's Court ', social property ' socialist centralism ', peace shift ' Watch the world ', Hero of Labour ' hero of labor ', Exhibition of Economic Achievements ' Exhibition of Achievements of the National Economy ', People 's Artist ' People's Artist ', Honoured Artist ' Honored Artist ', Honoured Scientist ' Honored Scientist ', Honoured Art Worker ' Honoured art ', Park of Culture and Rest ' recreation park ', Wedding Palace ' Wedding Palace '. Sometimes under the influence of Russian expressions exactly kalkiruetsya phrase that matches already in the English equivalent. So, along with conventional combinations Socialist order , Socialist Regime meets and accurate tracing from the Russian ' socialist system '- Socialist structure . Sometimes the desire for accurate reproduction of the structure leads to Russian phrases semantic fuzziness. For example, the expression ' industrial training 'is passed as Productive learning . This tracing clearly fails due ambiguities English adjective productive, which means not only the 'production', but also 'productive', 'productive', 'effective', 'productive'. Therefore, some authors resort to the transfer of this concept by the phrase Technological learning .

3) The use of English words in their new values that are relevant Russian words: shock Brigade , the formerly in the English meaning of 'emergency team' now means' shock brigade '.

4) Application of the latter transmission method Russian vyrazhenich is substantially no calking, but rather clarifying the translation. This is the fourth form of Russian borrowings postrevolutionary era. The notion of ' individual farmer 'token passed Individual Peasant , ' poor '- Poor Peasant , ' middle peasants '- Middle Peasant , ' farm '- collectiva farm , ' farmer '- Collective farmer , ' progressive wage system '(progressivka) - Progressive piece - rate system . These cases are not the result of tracing, as in them there peresskaz values and not play back the most etymological structure Russian tokens.

There are also so-called "hybrid" loans, ie, derived from Russian and English words: Soviet Union, Soviet power, stakhanovite movement , etc.

Often, the same Russian word exists in the English language in two forms - in Russian and material form as vellum: Komsomol - Young Communist League, piatiletka - Five - year - plan, Sovkhoz - State farm. Many Russian borrowings entered the vocabulary of English language is so strong that they gave and give a number of new formations: collectivize, collectivization, sovietic, sovietism, sovietize, Y. C. L - er ' Komsomolets ' (Y. C. L. - Young Communist League), pioneer Leadership etc.

Sometimes the search for the English equivalent for the Russian term, an attempt to use an explanatory translation to convey concepts specific to the Soviet socialist social and state system is reduced to the substitution of the word not only Russian, but also the very notion expressed by them. This happens, for example, in cases where permitted to replace Russian political terms such English terms, which essentially reflect a fundamentally different social system. For example, 'Prime Minister' often turns into Premier, 'Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet' - in President of the S o viet Union, 'advice' - in the council. Needless to say, that all these cases can not be regarded as a borrowing from the Russian language. Attraction to many English writers explains Translation explained, apparently, the desire for maximum clarity of presentation.

Phonetic or full borrowing, entered the English language in its native form soundproofing known manner modified in accordance with the English phonetic system, in most cases remain unchanged inherent semantics. Number of Russian origin phonetic borrowing is relatively small. Separate ways listed above are closely related to each other and their tude quite discern. This kind, as well as insufficient development of this issue explains the presence protivorichivaya statements in the works of various linguists. Thus, VV Akulenko blueprints cases relates to the translation of words relevant Russian English words used in the new value, for example, cell ' cell ', patronage ' patronage ', whereas the NN Amoz includes them in the phonetic borrowing. NN Raevskaya believes phrase Young Communist League tracing paper, and NN Amoz - explanatory translation.

If during the first three periods of Russianisms prevailed directly borrowed words, although there were separate tracing paper (eg, Slavophils ' Slavophiles 'and Westeners ' Westerners '), in the fourth period tracings appear in large numbers. In the Soviet era, tracing is becoming the leading method of borrowing Russian words and phrases in English, for example, Soviet power, local Soviet, Council of People 's Commissars, New Economic Policy, Hero of Socialist Labour, Land of Soviets .

A significant amount of cripples ( Party - Nucleus ' core of the party ') is based on rethinking certain English words, their acquisition of new values associated with Soviet reality. This once again confirms the fact that it is not always possible to establish a clear distinction between different modes of communication Sovietisms in English.

VV Akulenko distinguishes several types of trace borrowings: polukalek to complex words and terms like composite Soviet farm ' farm '; polukalek to affriksalnym entities with replacement affriksa or root: michurinist ' Michurinist ', stormovik ' attack '. In the latter case, it was more a question not of tracing and complete assimilation of lexical borrowing, expressed in likening borrowed root primordial and replacing foreign language derivational affixes elements specific to the language.

Education abbreviations many Russian borrowing (for example, C. P. S. U. Communist Party of the Soviet Union, MTS Machine and Tractor Station ) shows a broad understanding and use of these words.

NN Amoz indicates cases displacement phonetic borrowing more conventional words, calques ( Komsomol - Young, Communist League ), as well as instability, loose form separate Sovietisms (cf. maternity Centre - consultative Centre, Sovkhoz - Soviet farm ).

Part Sovietisms reflects concepts characterizing certain, the last stage in the development of Soviet society, and is not used in relation to modern reality as in Russian and in English, for example: NEP, rabfac, Council of People 's, Commissars, Red Army.

In his Ph.D. dissertation G. Yu score "Russian influence postrevolutionary era on the vocabulary of the English language" among other issues highlighted the problem of lexical assimilation of borrowed words, manifested in their semantic peculiarities of development and growth of their formative productivity. International word partisan , mean in English 'supporter', 'follower of any party', after the War of 1812 took on a new meaning in this new value passed into the English language. Of the Soviet period of Russian borrowed only those words and only those values that are associated with new and important part of people's concepts, do not have their designation in the language, such as: Soviet meaning 'authority prolitariata and rural poor' has gained importance ' body workers' power in the USSR '.

Most Russian words, getting in English semantics remain unchanged, however, the individual borrowing to acquire new, more value, ie exposed known rethinking. So, the word Soviet in the plural form for the name is sometimes served the Soviet state, and sometimes uotreblyalos meaning 'Soviet power', for example: Under the Soviets ' under the Soviet regime . " Word bolshevik besides its direct meaning ' member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 'is also used in the sense of' man of extreme revolutionary views '. Word komsomol sometimes used with the meaning ' Komsomolets '.

GY Bally binds Sovietisms acquisition of new meanings in English with the process of assimilation, which in itself is correct, but we should not forget that when the possibility of deliberate distortion of the semantics of certain words. Russian loanwords from creating new derivatives, according to available in English word-formation models: Five - year planning, Collective Farming, colectivisation, sovietic, sovietism, pioneer Leadership.

RZ Ginzburg distinguishes borrowing, decorated according to the norms of the English word formation, including the words of Russian origin: to jarovise - jarovisation type widespread in English (cf. to nationalise - Nationalisation, to dramatise - dramatisation).

Russian borrowing is also converted the adjective Soviet , formed from the corresponding noun and adjective kolkhoz in slovasochetanii kolkhoze member. In all cases the same kind of conversion: formation of an adjective from a noun.

International words. Often there is an important new concept denoting a word borrowed not in any one language, and in many languages. Thus, an international fund lexicon, which includes an international language different areas of human activity: politics, philosophy, science, technology, art, and many abstract words.

International, or international words borrowed from the same source, have graphics and sound similarities, coinciding to some extent in the sense, as would constitute the common heritage of a number of languages. Most of them are the result of the parallel enrichment of modern languages at the expense of the ancient vocabulary, ie, Latin and Greek. Another part of them comes from the modern languages, such as Russian: Soviet, Sputnik, Perestroika. By international words are not related compliance, ie words, the presence of which in a number of languages is a consequence of the relationship of these languages and their origin from one language - the basics.

A large number of different broad Sovietisms predominantly in English and other Western languages. Many of them turned into internatsionalinye words in their immediate Russian form or by tracing them.

As pointed out by VI Lenin: "Our Russian word" Soviet "- one of the most common, it is not even translated into other languages, and pronounce all in Russian."

Soviet satellite to orbit the language . history word sputnik very revealing example of how extra-linguistic ties in the history of language. While in the Soviet Union and the United States only the preparations for the launch of artificial satellites in the English literature are mainly used terms: Artificial Satellite, man - Made moon. On the day when the news about the launch of the first artificial satellite of the Soviet Union, and there was immediately become a common word baby - moon with a strong positive emotional tone. However, the popularity of this event and the admiration of a grand achievement of Russian science has led to the fact that the Russian word sputnik quickly entered all languages of the world, displacing competing with them interchangeably.

On the day when the Soviet satellite went into space, radio and newspapers around the world reported the event, keeping the Russian name of this unprecedented even spacecraft. Birthday new value from the old word satellite - 'first artificial Soviet satellite - an artificial satellite' - can be dated October 4, 1957. On this day, the eve of the 40th anniversary of the October Socialist Revolution, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, thereby ushering in a new, space age in the history of mankind.

From that day the word satellite in the sense of 'artificial satellite' becoming an international and in various transcriptions (ie writing by the rules of spelling and a pronunciation of foreign languages) is in different languages of the world, as evidenced by dictionaries - English, American, French, and others published in the late 50s - early 60s.

In Russian, the word is multi-valued, it has a wide range of uses, combinations that caused surprise in the foreign press: Russian word for a Satellite is " Sputnik ". It also means ... fellow-traveller («Daily Herald», 1957, 8 Okt.). In languages have borrowed words from the satellite , it is limited to a single value of 'Soviet artificial satellite', 'first artificial satellite.' Using borrowed Russian words differ concepts: American artificial satellite - is Satellite , and the Soviet artificial satellite - it Sputnik (satellite). The news of the spacecraft and the priority of the Soviet Union, both directly and indirectly reflected in the Russian language. This is a very interesting way of language exposure influenced by events not language - science and technology.

The first use of the word sputnik new reality here as it was noted October 12, 1957 in the British newspaper "Daily Worker ". Between the first and second runs Soviet satellites word itself felt as unusual, excelled in print (italics quotation marks), was perceived as a proper name: As the Soviet Sputnik orbited around the Earth tailed by its own Sub - Satellite ... there Were These other Developments ("Daily Worker ", New York, Oct. 9, 1957). At first use of the word Sputnik is an occasional character. However, this situation does not last long. Word Sputnik is increasingly used when talking about a Soviet satellite. Even after the launch of the second Soviet satellite November 3, 1957 the name Sputnik ' satellite 'is becoming common, it is gaining prominence. Fluctuations in the use of the word satellite - Sputnik on his own behalf to the common noun ended in favor of the common noun usage. Russian word sputnik obeys the grammatical system of the English language: The Sputnik 's Radio Voice ("Daily Worker ", New York, October 10, 1957). Word is concise, stress the word sputnik on the first syllable. This coincides with the location of stress in English words and facilitates the entry of Russian words into English. In fact, in the beginning there is a combination word | sp |, at the end of the word - a consonant | k |, which is typical of words of English speech. Reading vowels also complies with current regulations. In the article "Russian 's Second Satellite "the launch of the second artificial satellite in the journal «Flight» (Nov. 8, 1957), the word Sputnik occurs repeatedly: This Second Sputnik carried equipment weighing no less than Half a ton ... ACCORDING to the Observation Data Sputnik WAS Given an orbital Speed of About 8,000 Metres per Second. ACCORDING to Calculations Which are Being Made by more Exact Direct observations, the Maximum Distance of the Sputnik from the Earth's surface is over 1,500 km (About 935 miles). Originally the word Sputnik is often used with an application that reveals the content of the borrowed word: A sign in the window informed Them They Were Hearing Sputnik , the Russian moon ("Daily Worker", New York, Oct. 9, 1957); Even more exciting than to Them Apparently the beep-beep of the Sputnik , the Russian-Launched moon, is the sound of Mr. and Mrs. American Citizen calling in from all over the country wanting information («Daily Worker», New York, Oct. 10, 1957); The Artificial moon Sputnik ("Daily Worker", London, Nov. 11, 1957). Soon, however, such "support" becomes redundant. Word of Sputnik in force acquired their fame clearly speaks for itself. interesting fact is that the Russian word sputnik in English explained by comparing with the Moon. If the Russian language artificial satellite is defined as a satellite of the Earth , the new way of English texts often built in comparison with the Moon: Rissian - Launched moon ("Daily Worker ", London, 1957, 11 Nov.).

Usually it takes time to become someone's word was fixed dictionaries. But the word satellite was included in dictionaries almost simultaneously with the satellite -machine into orbit. "There is nothing surprising that linguists have acted on such a hurry: satellites changed the behavior and scientists and statesmen "- so the newspaper" New York Herald Tribune, "December 21, 1957. It was pointed out socio-ideological meaning of the word Sputnik. It reflected the revolutionary phenomenon not only in science and technology. Exit Soviet satellite into space simultaneously announced on scientific and technical potential of the Soviet Union. It is the Russian word Sputnik becomes the symbol of a new era in science and in society.

In the process of fixing the word Sputnik in English a number of changes occurred in the understanding of native speakers of the grammatical nature of the word. Thus, the observed fluctuations in the sense of the word as a common noun or as a proper name. If in the above extracts from the journal «Flight» word clearly used as a common noun (the Sputnik ), then, for example, in referring to the same time the magazine «Life» (Nov. 11, 1957) Sputnik has a value of a proper name: the growing familiarity with Sputnik did nothing to Soothe American 's shock at the original Announcement of the Soviet Breakthrough into space. Such fluctuations can be observed not only in various publications, but even in the same edition. For example, in the American newspaper «Daily Worker» on October 8, 1957 we find: He May Find A Judge to issue an injunction Ordering Sputnik to go back Home. It is Possible That Sputnik Will Recognize the injunction. It is also possible that it will merely reply Beep-Beep-Beep and continue on its merry way. Here Sputnik - a proper name. In the same newspaper on October 10 the same year, in the phrase "... The Sputnik Continued to Speed around the Earth "is used as a common noun is a noun. Due to the launch of the next satellite is very commonly used steel designations Sputnik I, Sputnik II, Sputnik III. Side by side with by that word widely isrolzuetsya as usual name common noun: It is not Suggested That this feat of Engineering Proves That ITS sponsors have Decided to beat swords into All Their Ploughshares, but every Sputnik Which uses rockets, launchers and Personnel is one such transfomation. Besides, just as the conquest of Everest WAS Shared by All Those Which teams tried before, so Also are sputniks A World Achievement ("Aeronautics", 1958, № 5). In a relatively short period Sputnik acquires grammatical features of English noun: a singular and plural possessive is used in, for example: The Sputnik 's Radio voice ("Daily Worker ", New York, Oct. 10, 1957), has all the syntactic function noun. Word used not only with certain, but in individual cases and with uncertain ARTICLE: Tikhov Said he soon Hoped That A Sputnik Which Would be designed "Would revolve around the Moon to photograph the Which Side cannot be Seen from the Earth" ("Daily Herald", Oct. 5, 1957). Currently not often see Sputnik , dedicated kurivom. Completely disappeared cases writing the words in quotations. Moreover, the usual spelling of the word was with a lowercase letter.

It is interesting to follow how did you select the name, what new - even temporarily existed - in language education spawned a new phenomenon. Here are the main symbols of the satellite , which were used in the pages of British and American newspapers in the first half of October: satellite (often with the definitions, for example: the Russian Satellite, Russia 's Earth Satellite and seemingly opposite - Russia 's space Satellite), the moon (often in combination, for example: the baby moon, the Russian ( Soviet ) (Satellite) moon, the man - Made moon, the Red Moon, Russia 's moon), the Bleep, (the) Sputnik . As you can see, the names of various. However, some bear the imprint of the speaker's attitude to the satellite as a messenger of the Soviet Union. If the word Satellite, Sputnik neutral in this regard, then it can not be said, for example, of such designation as the Red Moon. This name - a product of the "cold war." Conversely, the baby moon, the Bleep sound almost affectionately. The basis of the word imitation is Bleep satellite signals. This word is widely used to refer to the first Soviet satellite: I saw the Bleep ... Yesterday ("Daily Herald", Oct. 12, 1957); A special newsreal on the Bleep reached Moscow cinemas yesterday («Daily Worker», London, Oct. 16, 1957). And even in generalized value: Not a Bleep by Britain («Daily Herald», Oct. 30, 1957). Bleep was one of those sensational titles, the use of which is characteristic of the foreign press. Like most such entities, it was doomed to early obsolescence. Probably cessation words Bleep facilitated by the fact that a sign of underlying names, but um c in the word of a temporary nature, does not represent a constant feature of the subject.

Very clearly reflect a subjective attitude of the people to a new subject here, one of the suggestions from readers of English newspapers - "Daily Herald "announced in this newspaper competition for the best name of the satellite. Four days after the announcement of the competition, 11 October 1957, ie just a week after the launch of the satellite , the newspaper announced the results of the competition, while publishing more than twenty names drawn from Received proposals for the names of the satellite . These names are clearly manifested feelings caused by the Soviet satellite people in the West. In some proposed названий подчеркивается достигнутое Советским Союзом первенство in launch artificial satellites : Highball - It is That literally, and it Certainly Carries A hefty kick for the Scientists of the Western World (A sec received first Prize.); Saturnike - from Sat-on-ike, Because they've Got one over on the Americans. In some names reflected rating incident events as outstanding scientific and technical Achievements: Kangaroo - It has Made the Biggest Jump in Rocket Science; Elvis - It's TOP of the hit parade. Existing in consciousness people link concepts of "USSR" and " satellite "expressed by using for it itself form words, one of readers, making the words o Russell - Combine Part I of Russia with Part of Satellite, and it Makes A lovely tongue-Twister: Russian Round Russell rushes. As mentioned, most of the other names permeated optimism, faith in the future of light:

New Dawn - In the hope That it marks the Beginning of an ERA in Which the conquest of space Will replace an AIM as the conquest of man.

Herald - Let us Assume That it is the Herald of peace Encircling the World.

Hope - Trusting That Will Scientists now forget All About War.

Saviour - Because it Will end All War Ambitions and Give mankind eternal peace.

Cupid - Will I have Faith in Humanity and hope That it Will Capture All our hearts.

Comrade Whiz - I hope it's A Comrade and it WAS Certainly Launched with A Whiz.

These are in their content witty abbreviations:

Sam - Because it Sails Around Merrily, Madly Shocks America and is the Soviet's Amazing Miracle.

Susie - Soviet Unmanned Satellite in Exploration and Soviet Union's Success in Electronics.

Mitsi - Makes Interplanetary Travel Soon Inevitable.

Sadly stand out against these complete optimism somewhat pessimistic names names:

Alarmist - It has Been Launched to put the Free Countries in constant fear.

Harbinger of hell - Maybe the Russian moon Will Lead to Discoveries That man Will never wish he'd known.

Heaven's USURPER - If God wanted to enter into Men the sky and eavesdrop on What is going on in the abode of the Blessed, he Would have Provided Them with wings.

Although none of these designations are not "caught on", they can certainly be of interest in the study of the phenomena of the subject here, as well as indicators of the reaction in the West to launch the Soviet Union 's first artificial satellite of the Earth.

The role of Russian words borrowed satellite is not limited to naming a new subject. Layer of the satellite can act in another role - as characteristics or evaluation. Satellite - this is the first study artificially satellite, launched the world's first in outer bridges USSR symbol great scientific and technical to achieving. The word companion is now surrounded by a "cosmic" Oreo scrap due to the outstanding achievements of science and technology. The combination of the first Soviet satellite and outlines a new appraisal and qualitative use of the word meaning 'the action chosen for the first time, a phenomenon like for launching the world's first Soviet satellite. Here are some examples of such use. American scientist J. Bar-Hillel, estimating in 1962 ("The Times Literary Supplement ") experience possible from machine translation (albeit imperfect strength) for the general public, said that his recovery may take "as the launch of another satellite" (" ... as another Sputnik ") . Russian word Sputnik here marks the first time committed something of paramount importance for all mankind. Another similar case. Renowned Italian scientist Professor Dalotti sky from the podium of one of USC called surgical instruments for suturing blood vessels and tissues created in the USSR Council cal " satellites in surgery. " Slopes of these Soviet " satellites "was constructed over the world (" Companions in hirur energy. "-" Spark ", 1963, № 28, p. 9). And again the word of Russian Sputnik helped to not only emotional, but also is a correct assessment of the world's first established as accurate as surgical instruments.

If we talk about the lexical "ingrown" words, we can note some cases the use of the word in a figurative sense, which is only possible with the word, the meaning of which is well known: Arthur Clarke, Founder of the British Interplanetary Society, is off to America to fire a verbal Sputnik at the Politicians there ("Daily Herald ", Nov. 8, 1957). That the word Sputnik firmly established in the English Dictionary, confirmed lexical tumors associated with this borrowing.

English neoplasms with the suffix - Nik . Out of Sputnik stands suffix - Nik , which stands in the Russian language "a person involved in any activity or associated with anything osobennym'i used in English to form new words. Suffix appears as a suffix of nouns. Firstborn can be considered ironic and humorous flopnik , formed from the verb to Flop - plop, plunk. The word was used in the British press to refer to the American artificial satellite, unofficially named Yanknik , in connection with udavshimisya repeatedly failed attempts to start it. Following flopnik appeared kaputnik , goofnik , sputternik . Known words such as peacenik ' peacenik 'and returnik ' returnee '. Also Beatnik - very commonly used choice while the word for 'representative beat generation' (America). Similarly, the word was formed by Pupnik (but already from the existing pup - puppy). Word was used in English Print in period motion second Soviet satellite concludes in yourself dog called Americans Muttnik : Earlier Professor Nesmeyanov, WHO HEADS the Russian Academy of Science, Revealed That the Pupnik is Heavier than Half-ton first Announced ("Daily Herald", Nov. 6, 1957); the Pupnik is exactly on the Broadcasting Frequencies Same as the Sputnik ("Daily Herald", Nov. 4, 1957). The magazine «Time» entitled "Dog Story "left a note:

Dog Man Sights: Headlines yelped Barbaric New Words such as pupnik and poochnik , sputpup and woofnik . Cartoonists Outer space filled with Gloomy GOPniks and gleeful Demo-niks ... Readers mysterious flying objects Reported That the Fort Worth Star-Telegram promptly dubbed whatniks Even Manhattan's ... Usually longfaced Communist Daily Worker in bayed A Headline: every dognik has ITS daynik (Nov. 18 , 1957).