Peculiarities of translation of Literary Text

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The Republic of Kazakhstan Ministry of Education and Science

Suleyman Demirel University

COURSE PAPER

Topic: “Peculiarities of translation of Literary Text”

Specialty: B5020700 - “Translation Studies”

Done by A. Tolebekova

Advisor L.Y. Chernikova

Senior Instructor

Almaty 2012



Content

Introduction

1. The problem of translation of literary text

1.1 Translation of Literary Text

1.1.1 Translation of Poetry

1.1.2 Translation of Satirical work

1.1.3 Translation of Lyrics

1.2 Translating Dialect Literature

1.3 Translation of belles - letter

2. Philological analysis of linguistic difficulties in literary translation

2.1 Literary translation of specifically English grammatical forms and construction

2.2 Lexical transformation

2.3 Meaning (semantics) of compliance in the translation

2.4 Literary Point of View and Linguistic Point of View

2.5 Culture-Specific Items in Literary Translation

Conclusion

References



Introduction

Translation is a process and the result of turning a text from one language into another, which means expressing the same by the signs of a different language. Bearing in mind that every sign has two planes (plane of expression and plane of content) the essence of translation could be described as changing the elements of the plane of expression while the plane of content remains constant.

One of the main difficulties of translating lies in the fact that the meaning of the whole text is not exhausted by the sum of meanings of its elements. The meaning of a text is made up by words (characterized by their denotative and connotative meanings and stylistic reference), syntactic meaning of sentences and utterances larger than sentences, suprasegmental elements and lexico-semantic connections between words and phrases. That is why this course work has a great importance in studying literary translation.

Topicality of the course paper is importance of studying linguistic difficulties of literary translation, as adequate translation of literary texts has a great importance in the field of philology.

The aim of course paper is to analyze the importance of the adequate translation and define linguistic difficulties that are faced in literary translation.

Literary translation includes all variety of genres of literature (prose, poetry, folklore), literary criticism and journalism. In literary texts the two main text-related functions: the impact and aesthetic. In these texts, is particularly important form of presentation. The literature is embodied not only and not so much rational as an artistic and aesthetic knowledge of reality. On how and in what form the content materializes depends aesthetic value of the product and the level of emotional and expressive impact on the reader. In the artistic texts are used units and tools of all styles, but all of these style elements included in a special literary system and acquire a new aesthetic function. Of course, literary texts are divided into types, such as the appropriate literary genres. Each species has its own art and will be functional specificity. Nevertheless, regardless of the genre of the text, the main task of the translator of literary texts - give artistic and aesthetic merits of the original, to create a full-fledged artistic text in the target language.

Close to the literary translation of their text-forming function and has a long tradition, translation covers the translation of religious works of the canonical books of Holy Scripture, lives of saints, theological works, etc. and has its own traditions. literary translation grammatical lexical

Literary translation and translation of religious works is contrasted with an informative interpretation. Informative (non-artistic, special) translation is the translation of texts, whose main function is to inform, report certain information, but not in the artistic and aesthetic impact on the reader. These texts usually referred all materials except for the literary and religious works. The main task of the translator of such texts - the most complete transfer of the information contained therein, to ensure invariance at the level of content.

Definition of Style and Its Identification

Style is the essential characteristic of every piece of writing, the outcome of the writer's personality and his emotions at the moment, and no single paragraph can be put together without revealing to some degree the personality of its author.

In short, style is the man, as de Buffon, the eighteenth-century French thinker and writer, put it.

It is universally acknowledged that every writer has a literary style and that his style is reflected in his writing.

There is no doubt that different literary works have discernibly different styles. However, regarding the question of translatability of the original style, opinions differ. Some will say that a translation should reflect the style of the original and others say that a translation should possess the style of the translator.

A literary translation is a translation of belles-lettres works and literary texts. This kind of translation is an instrument of cultural familiarization with the world, broadening of collective memory of humankind, a factor of culture itself. A theoretical basis of such translation is a literary studies theory of translation, aimed at solution of historical and literary tasks.

In literary translation, the following things are important: preservation of form, content, structure and aesthetic influence of the original. A translation of literary text is performed by professional philologists with consideration of all language peculiarities.

Translation activities of specialists is defined and limited by sphere of professional communication. The texts to be translated (source text) in a specific field of professional communication are very diverse and different in genre and stylistic characteristics and method of presentation. As a consequence of different texts and translations. However, despite having a variety of texts, can reveal features in common, and they can be classified. In the construction of classifications of translation can be taken into account various criteria. Operation of communication in two forms, oral and written, led to the development of the classification of the translation of the text in the way of perception and presentation of the translated text.

Now consider the functional-typological classification. According to the basic features of the text (message function, and interaction effects) are the following functional types of translation: literary translation, the translation of religious writings and informative (special, non-literary) translation.

In most societies literary translation seems to have become so important that the very concept of translation tends to be restricted to literary translation in comparison with other types of translation and other texts. Furthermore, translating culture-specific items in literary translations seems to be one of the most challenging tasks to be performed by a translator. In the present paper attempts were made to explore the concept of literary translation. Finally, the discussion was restricted to culture-specific items in literary translation which argued about the different kinds of culture specific items in literary translation.



1. The problem of translation of literary text

1.1 Translation of Literary Texts

Literary translation is an art accessible only for the privileged ones. Only an ingenious writer mastering perfectly a foreign language can translate the belles-lettres style bearing a definite emotional and stylistic message.

Among the difficulties of the literary translation one can state such as: abundance of expressive means and concepts, high emotional load, usage of obsolete expressions and archaisms, a large number of stylistic devices. The list of difficulties the translator of literary texts has to face with is evidently too large. Here you have no place for word-for-word translation, here you should have enough imagination and creativity to render the complete sense, colors, emotions and the effects of a literary text making it at the same time clear and readable for a particular speaker.

As to the translation of poetry - this is really a titanic and creative work that can be done by the “masters of rhyme”. You should be a poet yourself to render the full sense and the stylistic beauty of a poetical masterpiece and to make clear the message of the author as well.

“Poetry must be translated by a poet”

Literary translation is very different from other kinds of translation. It requires no memorization to use the phrase implies a verbal creativity, scientific words, saying the main task of literary translation is to provide artistic aesthetic impact on the receptor and in connection with this problem for literary translation is characterized by the maximum deviation of the main ideas.

In an artistic translation of certain subspecies differ in the translation:

1. Translation of Prose

2. Translation of poetry

3. Translation plays

4. Translation of satirical works

5. Translate lyrics

Real art is a translation of the poetic works. In them a lot of information for transmission, and are not as semantic as aesthetic, and by the way for the translation of poetry are taken only your favorites.

The ratio of the translation as an art interpreter makes the following demands:

1. The translator must take responsibility for the choice of works, the criterion should not be considered material reward, but the coincidence of individual affinity of the author and translator.

2. Translator on a level with the author is responsible for the fate of the product.

3. Interpreters must convey not only the logical objective information and subjective information, so that the reader could see in front of the same images that had the same feelings, the same mood as a reader of the original.

4. Interpreters must preserve the purity and beauty of their native language.

1.1.1 Translation of Poetry

Translation of poetry is one of the most difficult and challenging tasks for every translator. Returning to Robert Frost's definition, according to which “Poetry is what gets lost in translation”, we can say, that this statement could be considered as a truthful one to a certain extent because there is no one-to-one equivalent when comparing two languages. Even if the translators possess a profound knowledge in the source language they would not be able to create a replica of the original text.

From time immemorial, poetry has been part and parcel of people's lives. It immortalized ancient civilizations through epics such as Gilgamesh, the Illiad, the Iniad, Beowolf, pre-Islamic poetry, especially The Mu, alaqat, etc. Poets, however, gained special dignified status. What is poetry, then? What makes it so highly evaluated?

Poetry, to begin with, is meant to express the emotions and touch the feelings and depths of listeners or readers. It adds something essential to their experiences. The poet, therefore, has to be fully aware of the capacity of language to make his message highly effective. The words of the poem surpass their textual denotations; they take new shades of meaning dictated by the poetic context.

Be that as it may, poets resort to diverse devices to serve their intentions. They apply a variety of figures of speech; there is rhythm, rhyme, tone; there is deviation from the institutionalized linguistic code, and there is musicality expressed through meters and cadence.

Poetry, possessing all the above components, aroused doubts and queries on the possibility of its translatability. Whereas some people look at it as a sacred entity, others dared to conquer its impregnable fortifications!

The opponents of poetic translation such as W. B. Bateson and Turco propose their reasons: when poems, especially philosophical ones, satires, lyrics, etc, are translated into another language, they become not only flabby poems, but rather new ones in a new language. They stress that poetry in translation surely loses its basic elements. Such views go with the belief that poetry is wholly lost in translation.

Professor H. G. Widdowson in his book Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature, appears less extreme. He assumes that the translation of poetry is extremely difficult because of "the patterning of sound and sense into a single meaning."

Arabic views have been expressed in this respect. Al-Jahedh, for instance, believes that poetry is untranslatable; in case it is translated, its meter will be distorted, its tone disturbed and pleasure disappears. This view stems from the fact that each language has its own poetic meters and music.

Verse Translation vs. Prose Translation

Should we, then, refrain from translating poetry, or should we attempt at translating it irrespective of all precautions? The second view is advocated here for if poetry is left inaccessible to translation, mankind would be deprived of a huge number of poetic works which are masterpieces themselves.

One may wonder whether the translation be in verse or prose. A variety of views have been proposed in this regard. Theodore Savoy in his book The Art of Translation, mentions some of these views. He says that people such as Carlyle, Leigh Hunt and Professor Postates believe that poetry cannot be translated into a form other than poetry, for its aesthetic impact is expressed through meter. Others such as Mathew Arnold and Helaire Belloc expressed the possibility of translating poetry into prose for a prose form can still have its poetic essence.

It is supposed here that since poetry has its distinctive features, it cannot be rendered into pure prose. The poet is mainly concerned with the connotative force of words. The translation of poetry into poetry entails preserving the rhyme, figurative language and the general tone of the original. This cannot be achieved unless the translator has a special talent and introspection. Some poetic translations, so deep and original, have impressed readers in the other languages. Few of the translated versions have been deemed even more illuminating than the original. Professor Nickolson's translation of Jamil Buthayna's poems is but a lucid example:

Oh, might flower a new that youthful prime

And restore to us, Buthayna, the bygone time.

And might we again be blest as we want to be

When thy folk were nigh and grudged what thou gavest me.

Shall I ever meet Buthayna alone again?

The difficulty of poetic translation leads many to think that the translator of poetry must himself be a poet otherwise he should not dare to square the circle! There appeared also other attempts to translate poetry into rhythmic prose. Khalil Mutran, for instance, translated some of Shakespeare's plays applying rhythmic prose. Yet, pure prose translations are not recommended as much of the music of poetry is lost.

To conclude, poetry can be translated by those who have deep interest in poetry and who possess the poetic feel and sensation, in addition to their mastery of the other language. The poet, in this regard, is a leading translator. But, how many poets, who master a foreign language, can be found?

Firstly, we would like to draw the attention to the form of a poem. This is probably the first thing that the reader notices before reading. The translator should try to be as closer to the original as he/she can. For example, if haiku has to be translated, the short meaningful and condensed form should be preserved, because an author chooses deliberately the form and the structure of the poem as an inseparable part of the overall message that should be transferred and sensed by the readers. Thus for instance sonnet (fourteen lines) cannot turn into a villanelle (five three-line tercets and a final four-line quatrain), or an elegy (a lament for the dead) into an ode (devoted to the praise or celebration). Types of poetry are also important. It is necessary for the translator to understand whether he/she deals with a narrative or a lyric poetry. Because the difference between them is huge. Narrative poems stress story and action, and lyric poems stress emotion and song.

The second matter to discuss is the shape of a poem. A pictogram is visually concrete and has special shape. For example Lewis Carrol's “The mouse's tale” taken from Alice's Adventures in Wonderland” is translated into Armenian with a shape of a tale of a mouse. And here the choice of the translator is commendable. The shape of poetry is also in its stanzas. The translator can invert the stanzaic form of a poem during the translation if it is not compulsory to keep. But it is better to translate from the couplet (a pair of linked verses) into a couplet, from a tercet (three successive lines bound by rhyme) into a tierce, from quatrain (a stanza of four lines) into a quatrain, from a quintain (a five line stanza) into a quatrain, and from sestets (a six-line stanza) into sestets, etc.

The third range of problems that occur while translating poetry are the nuances of word's meaning. The translator can be confused in two ways. On the one hand he/she can find difficulties in understanding which from the numerous meanings of the word the author has used. On the other hand, he/she can be puzzled which equivalent from the target language to use. Emily Dickinson writes;

A word is dead

When it is said,

Some day.

I say it just

Begins to live

That day.

So the words must be under close examination of a translator. It is important to find out whether the word is used in its denotative, dictionary meaning or its connotative meaning, “which is the associated meanings that have built up around the word, or what the word connotes”. Through the effects of the words the authors use in their poems they make an imagery. Poems include such details which trigger our memories, stimulate our feelings, and command our response. The ideas in poetry are important, but the real value of a poem consists in the words that work their magic by allowing us to approach a poem is similar to Francis's “Catch” implies: expect to be surprised; stay on our toes; and concentrate on the delivery. This all is done by the words. Sometimes their meaning goes even far and reaches to the creation of some stylistic effects. Among them the most typical for poetry is metaphor. “It is metaphor, saying one thing and meaning another, saying one thing in terms of another, the pleasure of ulteriority. Poetry is simply made of metaphor (Robert Frost, ”The Constant Symbol”). Another stylistic figures include hyperbole or exaggeration, synecdoche or using part to signify the whole, metonomy or substituting an attribute of a thing for the thing itself, personification, endowing inanimate objects or abstract concepts with animate characteristics or qualities, etc.

The problems accruing in the process of translation may be concerned with the different elements of poetry. We can learn to interpret, appreciate and translate poems by understanding their basic elements. The elements of a poem include a speaker whose voice we hear in it; its diction or selection of words, its syntax or order of those words; its imagery or details of sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch; its figurative language or non literal ways of expressing one thing in terms of another, such as symbol and metaphor; its sound effects, especially rhyme, assonance, and alliteration; its rhythm and meter or the pattern of accents we hear in the poem's words, phrases, lines, and sentences, and its structure or formal pattern of organization.

We would like to discuss another matter causing a lot of problems in translating poetry, which is the grammatical difference between the languages. The grammatical rules compulsory for the prose are not obligatory for the poems or we could just say that the poets do not follow them strictly wherefore the translators are usually puzzled over such very creative works. Sometimes, the poets in their imaginativeness offer really unusual, striking, new and surprising works, which are difficult for translation. The translator should be combinative in order to transfer this novelty, hidden sense or specific grammatical structure. So as to clarify the situation we can pay attention to the second person pronoun and its usage. This transition in styles should be preserved in the target language because it carries the whole emotional and psychological world of a poet. For instance, the word “you” is sometimes difficult to translate. It can either be “№бх” or ”ёбхщ”. In this case the translator must catch the intension of the author. Of course the grammatical shifts are possible in poetry translation, because here the translator aims at transmitting more the content. So any choice of the translator to change the grammatical form can be justified until it spoils the meaning.

Poetry has always been closely related to music. It “is an art of rhythm but is not primarily an effective means of communication like music”. It, as well as being something that we see, is also something that we hear. “There remains even now a vibrant tradition of poetry being delivered orally or “recited”; and even the silent reading of poetry, if properly performed, should allow the lines to register on the mind's ear.” When speaking about the sound the first thing to mention is rhyme, which can be defined as the matching of final vowel or consonant sounds in two or more words. Though there are unrhymed poems, they give in the point of view of their sound value. Robert Frost, who wrote traditional rhymed styles, growled that writing without rhyme is like “playing tennis with the net down”. It is a little strict, because many rhymed lines look and sound better in an unrhymed shape. In fact, sound is anything connected with sound cultivation including rhyme, rhythm, which refers the regular recurrence of the accent or stress in a poem, assonance or the repetition of vowel sounds, onomatopoeia, which implies that the word is made up to describe the sound, alliteration or the repetition of the same sounding letters, etc. A translator must try to maintain them in the translation. As Newmark states, "In a significant text, semantic truth is cardinal [meaning is not more or less important, it is important!, whilst of the three aesthetic factors, sound (alliteration or rhyme) is likely to recede in importance -- rhyme is perhaps the most likely factor to 'give' -- rhyming is difficult and artificial enough in one language, reproducing line is sometimes doubly so." In short, if the translation is faced with the condition where he should sacrifice one of the three factors, structure, metaphor, and sound, he should sacrifice the sound.

On the other hand, the translator should balance where the beauty of a poem really lies. If the beauty lies more on the sounds rather than on the meaning (semantic), the translator cannot ignore the sound factor.

1.1.2 Translation of Satirical works

Satire is primarily a literary genre or form, although in practice it can also be found in the graphic and performing arts. In satire, vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, ideally with the intent of shaming individuals, and society itself, into improvement. Although satire is usually meant to be funny, its greater purpose is often constructive social criticism, using wit as a weapon.

A common feature of satire is strong irony or sarcasm--"in satire, irony is militant"--but parody, burlesque, exaggeration, juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, and double entendre are all frequently used in satirical speech and writing. This "militant" irony or sarcasm often professes to approve of (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist wishes to attack.

Satire is nowadays found in many artistic forms of expression, including literature, plays, commentary, and media such as lyrics.

Satirical works plays an important role in the historical study of any culture or society. The flaws, reactions, rectification sought and transformation took place in a society need to be studied in order to understand the gradual changes, which took place in a community or a society. Similarly, several literary satirical works have been produced and gained popularity. Such works are sought by other language people. In spite of all these facts translators in general are hesitate to translate the

satirical works as they are of difficult task. Even several satirical works such as the works of George Bernard Shaw, Jonathan Swift and poems of Alexander Pope, T.S. Eliot etc., are translated in many languages; most of them are translated in a lighter way by neglecting the satirical flavour. They concentrate only on the story or translation.

Identification of Satire: Understanding a satire is not an easy task, because of its subtlety. Every society has its own flaws and follies. They vary from time to time. One vice may not be vice in another century in the same language society. Some people may not consider some of the flaws as flaws in the same society as views change from person to person. Satire can be easily identified if it is uttered, in speech, through the help of tone, the facial expression of the speaker and the manner and time of its expression. There will be a clue (tone) to identify the satirical element present in the speech. But identifying a satirical comment from a printed text, written in the earlier period is certainly a problem. The commentaries and criticism written on such literary works may help the translator to understand and identify the intention of the original author and the purpose and way of its writing. For example, some critics of the work "Arms and tlw Man" say that Bluntschli is the mouthpiece of George Bernard Shaw. So by knowing this, a translator can carefully analyze each and every dialogue of Bluntschli and identify the satire. Hence, the translators of a satirical work need to read carefully not only the original text, but also its criticism. The critical analysis of such work may give hints about the presence of satire in the dialogue of some characters and highlight the intention of the authors and the details of the flaws, which are criticized. For example C.R. Reddy's comments helps one in identifying satirical elements in Knnyasulkam of Gurajada Appa Rao. Some characters in some plays are antagonists and protagonists. In order to identify the satirical elements of such texts, the translator must understand the conflict between them. In this regard, the translator should read certain works to understand the social set up of the S.L people.

The historical events, life style of that particular society or period. It will help the translator, to understand the seriousness of such flaws and the reason behind their existence, the superstitious nature of the people and the reformer's trials to eradicate them, which are necessary to translate effectively. For example in the satirical work of G. B. Shaw, "Arms and the Man', Bluntschli and Louka are the antagonists and Raina and Catherine are protagonists. At this point of time it is necessary to distinguish between the plays, what quality or qualities permit us to look at a poem or a story, and call it a satire; to examine another, and declare that it has some satirical episodes, but is not wholly or mainly a satire. However, there are a number of reliable tests. If some, or most of the following apply to a book, it is likely to be a satirical work. "First, a generic definition or declaration given by the author or some character of the text. For example: Juvenal looks at corrupt Rome and says: 'It is difficult not to write Satire' and he further adds 'Hundreds of poets are writing epics and dramas and elegies; Satire is my field'. Secondly, a pedigree. For example When Erasmus says that his "Praise of Folly" is justified by "The Battle of Frogs and Mice", he is proclaiming that one line of its descent comes from the classical satirists.

Third, the choice of the theme and method used by earlier satirists. For example "The first Satire of Boileau, is a monologue spoken by a beggar poet, who is leaving Paris forever, since he cannot live and prosper, where without being or becoming corrupt. This main theme, and many of its subordinate developments are adapted from the third satire of Juvenal. Boileau announces himself as a satirist of the hard bitter Juvenalian School. Fourth, by quoting the actual words or a line of a poem of a distinguished satirist, the author gives a hint or makes it plain, without a direct statement informing the readers that he is writing a satire. For example 'Peacock' opens his four novels with quotations from satirist "Samuel Butler". Byron begins his "English Bards and Scotch Reviewers" with the adaptations of the first sentence of Juvenal's first poem".

Translation of Satire

The intention of the translator who ventures to translate a satirical work is not merely to convey the general ideas or the story of that selected text. But to show the various social events of a particular period, different flaws found in an individual or a society and the ways the original author ridicules them and tries to rectify them.

The translator is interested to show these happenings and the trials of its rectifications to the T.L people. Hence, a translator is not supposed to change the names of the characters, places of the incident, which takes place in the original text. He must try to retain by transliterating them in his translations, so as to inform the T.L people about the social and historical happenings in the S.L society. In most of the satirical and metaphorical works, the titles, sub-titles and proper names plays an important role. They metaphorically indicate the nature of the text, or the characters. For example, one of the main characters in William Congreve's play "The Way of the World" is by name Mrs. Wishfort. The name itself clearly expresses the character's greediness. 'Malaprop' in Sheridan's play 'The Rivals'. Malapropism means misuse of words and show off of intelligence. So the translator should retain the names and the significance and the true nature of the characters depicted in their name should be explained in the footnotes, rather than translating or changing them in the T.L text.

If the translator wants to change the names because of certain reasons, then he must select a name that also depicts the same characteristic behind the name. For example Hercules may be replaceable in Indian context with Bhagiratha, since both trials are similar.

Similarly, historical facts, happenings, cultural events should not be changed. The readers of such translation read them not simply to know the story, but to understand the society or way of lifestyle of the S.L people. For example: some characters are named with their profession like 'Poolakulamma', in Kanyasulkam.

Intention of a satirical author is more important as well as the sentences/form he uses in his text. Generally the goal of a satirical work is to correct the society or an individual for its/his follies and flaws. So, a translator of such works must be aware of the social setup, historical facts, mythological texts, common beliefs of the S.L people and understand the flaws prevailed in the society. He must also trace out the way they are criticized by the original author.

The translator should retain the examples and citations and the way of expression in his translation. For example, significance of 'Don Quixote' in the first act of 'Anns and the Man.

A translator of satire must be a dramatist; as he has the power of viewing (imagining) the facial expressions of such characters while attaining satirical comments. So that, he can identifies and translate the satire effectively.

Some satires may be direct and some are indirect. When a translator wants to select a satirical work for his translation, he must be aware of the historical facts and the social setup of the period of its writing. He must know the nature of the original author. When it comes to the intention of the folly may be expressed/presented directly or indirectly, some times the follies may not be clearly visible, that could be an idea also. The idea should be taken into consideration while translating.

Satirical element incorporated in the name should be mentioned in the footnote. From time to time, wherever necessary the translator should give historical facts, superstitious beliefs in the footnote. For example: Bluntschli is a Bluntly speaking character and Karatakasastry of Kanyasulkam is named because of his cunning acts, 'karata' is the name of the fox in 'Mitralaabham' from "Panchatantra", a collection of moral stories. Lubdhavadhanlu, the name itself gives a hint that he is greedy.

Many times the satirical tone may not be expressed clearly or may not be understood by the modern readers. They may appear like non-satirical sentences. So, the translator should explain the satirical aspect of the dialogues. And should explain why it is a satire and how it is expressed in the footnote in order to facilitate the target language readers to enjoy the work. For example: 'Twinkle, twinkle little star', it seems a nursery rhyme, it is important to understand one of the characters hypocrisy and nullifying the things. Before the publication of the translated text the translator should read the whole translation in order to ascertain that the satirical elements or tone are effectively brought in or not. If necessary he can give this translation to some evaluators in order to conform it. Generally the evaluators suggest some suggestions to improve the quality of the translation, the translator should not hesitate to incorporate them to bring the effect For example: Sri Pennepalli Gopalakrishna, has written a critical evaluation on the English Translation of Kanyasulkam by Vijayasree, C. and Vijay Kumar, T. in Andhra Jyothi, a Telugu Daily, dated, under the title: "Te defects of translating Kanyasulkam', which can be used for improvement. After the publication, if critics points out any flaws in the translation (as above said news paper article) he should take it impartially and change his translation wherever necessary to rectify his translation, and modify the consequent additions. As far as possible, satirical translation is concerned, it is better to avoid over translation, under translation, addition and deletion unless it is necessary. Mis-translation should be totally avoided. The translator should also be a critic. He must evaluate his own translation, especially his satirical parts, to see the message is conveyed effectively in the translation or not. He must raise a doubt to himself whether the T.L people will understand the satirical effect or not. Whether, he did justice to the original author/text or not. Whether, the target people will understand the source language society and their lifestyle or not. If some of the social flaws discussed in the translation are still prevailing (existing) in the target society, in some form or the other, the translator should rectify them and try to change the society. There are some satires, which criticizes the follies common to all. Which are easy to translate in any language because all those weaknesses are universal. But the satires that are peculiar to a particular society or an individual are difficult to translate. So in order to bring the effect or to do justice to the original text or to the author's idea, the translator must strive hard.

1.1.3 Translation of lyrics

Translation of lyrics is difficult, especially while the rhyme is maintained. A translator needs the deepest understanding of cultures of both the societies linked with the source and target languages while dealing with lyrics. Significant difference is observed while analyzing the translation of the same source topic accomplished by different people. In fact a good translation work needs creativity in the translator. So it can be said that apart from language skills, knowledge on respective issues, understanding of cultures and realizing human feelings, competent translators should also have creativity in them. This is why, with all the difficulties, translation of lyrics is interesting and it brings satisfaction for the translators and gives them insight pleasure after the job is done. This joy and satisfaction arises in view of their creation of the work, though the entire activities are not fundamental for them.

Indeed, translation of texts from a source language to a target language isn't a very easy job. Geo-anthropological and cultural differences in the societies linked with the languages, among other things, are the reasons behind this. These differences cause significant divergence in the expressions of people.

Translation in each and every field isn't at the same level of difficulties. It varies on subjects, peculiarities of items, languages involved and the style of expressions.

Everybody knows that translation relating to advanced science and technology is tough, but it's mainly due to scarcity of terminologies, as all target languages have not yet been enriched with these. However, there's a custom of using the English terminologies in the cases where there's lack in this regard in the target language. This approach has made the translation of hi-tech issues much easier than it's widely thought.

This is also true for translation of academic issues where, in some cases, a lot of terminologies are used. What's also needed here in a translator is the basic things- word stock of the target language and also knowledge of sentence structure of that. It means in these cases one can show excellent performance as a translator mainly based on his language proficiency.

What about the other fields of translation? Actually there are versatile fields and mentioning all of these fields in a short article is difficult. So attention might be given on some categories where a huge volume of translation is performed regularly.

For Example, news is a field of huge translation and it has, at the same time, varieties of items. These are newspaper articles, items on politics, administration, finance and economics, law, agriculture, fisheries, science and technology, development, various socio-cultural and religious issues, nature, natural calamities and disasters, international organizations, sports, culture and others. A translator needs language skill as well as knowledge of the respective fields during conversion of language for the items, drawn from different fields. Certainly language skill is considered an essential quality for the people engaged in the profession of translation.

Besides, a professional translator has to work on some rare items like reports, presentations of programs, lyrics and so on. Translating a different form of item such as presentation of a cultural or other podium based program needs knowledge of that particular issue, in addition to language efficiency.

Translation of lyrics is the toughest among the fields mentioned, especially while the rhyme is maintained. A translator needs the deepest understanding of cultures of both the societies linked with the source and target languages while dealing with lyrics.

If maintaining the rhyme isn't essential, it's easier, but still one needs realizing the inner feelings and other matters regarding human psychology in translating these items.

Of course, there are some hassles while performing translations in any of the fields mentioned and fields from other sectors too. There's no denying that performing a good translation work also needs realization of the inner significance and purport of the subject by the translator.

Significant difference is observed while analyzing the translation of the same source topic accomplished by different people. In fact a good translation work also needs creativity in the translator. So it can be said that apart from language skills, knowledge on respective issues, understanding of cultures and realizing human feelings, competent translators should also have creativity in them.

This is why, with all the difficulties, translation of lyrics is interesting and it brings satisfaction for the translators and gives them insight pleasure after the job is done. This joy and satisfaction arises in view of their creation of the work, though the entire activities are not fundamental for them.

1.2 Translating Dialect Literature

Any critical discussion of works written in dialect is destined to run up against the heavy legacy of prejudices and misunderstandings that has historically weighed upon literature in dialect, often considered a "minor," subaltern, marginal language, even coarse and plebeian. These are misconceptions that the recent and in many respects exceptional flowering of dialect (or neodialect) poetry in Italy has put into a much different perspective, so that the absolute parity of vernacular poetry with that in standard Italian, long maintained by several enlightened critics (Croce is a case in point), has gradually gained universal acceptance, to the extent that it is now an established and irrefutable tenet of contemporary criticism. Dialect poetry has even been able to penetrate those prestigious editorial circuits from which it had always been excluded, bolstered by the recognition and encouragement of influential critics, even vying with Italian poetry for the attention of a readership that is no longer local or regional but instead national and international. Very significant, in this respect, was the recent Nobel candidacy of two poets who in a way embody this fundamental dichotomy of Italian etters, Mario Luzi and Albino Pierro, a development all the more remarkable considering that the latter wrote in one of the most archaic dialects in Italy, that of his native Tursi (which Gianfranco Contini defined as "proto-romance"), one without any literary tradition and extremely limited in its diffusion.

There are many reasons why so many contemporary Italian poets (the neodialect poets) are nowadays turning to dialect rather than to standard Italian as their medium of expression, reasons which carry far-reaching and deeply rooted implications

(literary, psychological, political, existential, anthropological): recent dialect poetry is part of a broader reaction to the alienating effects of postwar industrial society, which especially in the seventies meant the rehabilitation of ethnic history and memory. In the face of an increasingly complex reality, one rediscovers the universal potential in every man hence the recovery of personal history, of personal roots, which impersonal language of the mass media cannot recognize or transcribe. Ibis also means the recovery of one's native place, the place of origin, as an alternative to a monotonous and meaningless reality.

Perhaps the role of the dialect poet, as Franco Brevini notes, 1 reveals its deepest meaning in the struggle against the imposition of a super language,

English (this is particularly relevant in the case of poets who live in the United States and also write in English, such as Giose Rimanelli and Joseph Tusiani) and, at the national level, of a standard emanating from the productive industrial centers of the North. Dialect is posited, then, as the language of concreteness and difference, in direct opposition to the flat homogeneity of the language of television and advertising, and therefore offers a greater potential for individual creativity. The strength of dialect, in fact, lies in its essential "otherness," in its position of eccentricity with respect to the national language, in its different history, predominantly oral, which has saved it from the process of erosion and usura which always attends literary languages.

For this reason, contemporary dialect poets have tended to accentuate this difference in many ways, usually opting for more archaic forms, farther re- moved from standard Italian, even in spelling (Pierro, Bandini, Loi).

Along with sociocultural factors, there are psychological motivations that account for the choice of dialect--and not only dialect as a maternal tongue, as in Pasolini and Zanzotto, but also as a forgotten truth, a sacred, archaic language which is capable of revealing one's hidden being. Through dialect the poet represents not only the places and events of his memory, but also a conception of the world closer to his own personal experience. To contemporary men and women in danger of being swallowed up and obliterated by postindustrial society, dialect can offer the support of a culture which, while threat ended with obliteration, is radically different from the dominant culture. Dialect, then, as the linguistic testimony of a cultural heritage, of a collective patrimony and an anthropological condition condemned to extinction. De Benedetti has called dialect "the painful conscience of history", because only dialect, as opposed to the language of the ruling class, can bear witness to the injustices of history and give voice to the excluded and the oppressed.

1.3 Translation of belles - letters

It's a functional style. FS of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. In Eng literary standard we distinguish the following major FS: 1) language of belles-lettres; 2) language of publicistic literature; 3) language of newspapers; 4) language of scientific prose; 5) language of official documents.

Each FS is subdivided into a number of sub styles. The belles-lettres FS has the following sub styles: a) the language style of poetry; Its first differentiating property is its orderly form, which is based mainly on the rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of the utterances. b) the language style of emotive prose; Apart from meter and, what most of all distinguishes emotive prose from the poetic style is the combination of the literary variant or the language, both in words and syntax, with the colloquial, variant. c) the language style of drama; . The first thing to be said about the parameters of this variety of belles-lettres is that, unlike poetry, which, except for ballads, in essence excludes direct speech and therefore dialogue, and unlike emotive prose, which is a combination of monologue (the author's speech) and dialogue (the speech of the characters), the language of plays is entirely dialogue. Belles-lettres style embraces numerous and many-sided genres of imaginative writing. The purpose of the belles-lettres style is not to prove but only to suggest a possible interpretation of the phenomena of life by forcing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer. This is the cognitive function of the belles-lettres style.

Only three FS are recognized in stylistics. As to the newspaper style, it is often regarded as part of the publicist domain and is not always treated individually. But the biggest controversy is flaming around the belles-lettres style. The unlimited possibilities of creative writing, which covers the whole of the universe and makes use of all language resources, led some scholars to the conviction that because of the liability of its contours, it can be hardly qualified as a functional style. Still others claim that, regardless of its versatility (непостоянство), the belles-lettres style, in each of its concrete representations, fulfils the aesthetic function, which fact singles this style out of others and gives grounds to recognize its systematic uniqueness.

Of all the functional styles of language, the most difficult to define is the belles-lettres style. Franz Kafka defines this style as “organised violence done on ordinary speech”. Literary works create their own world. Each is a unique entity. Just as a painter uses paint to create a new image, a writer uses words to create a text. An important thing to recognise about literary works is just how carefully and consciously they are crafted. Words are the raw material of literature and literary writers stretch them to their limits.

D. Crystal said that the literary language is the art in making the unnatural appear natural. For example, a playwright or novelist may write a dialogue which is naturalistic - it employs colloquialism, dialect words and so on - but this dialogue is very different from spontaneous speech. It will contain no non-fluency features, it will probably be less repetitious and more dramatic than ordinary speech.

Other forms of literature make no attempt to appear natural - in fact they deliberately surprise the readersґ expectations. They might use familiar words in unfamiliar ways as e. cummings does, or they might coin new words as Gerald Hopkins does. Perhaps we expect poets to use deviant language, but prose writers like James Joyce do it too. The belles-lettres style is a generic term for three sub styles in which the main principles and the most general properties of the style are materialized. These three sub styles are:

the language of poetry

emotive prose

the language of the drama

Each of these sub styles has certain common features. First of all comes the common function which may be called “aesthetic-cognitive”. This is a double function which aims at the cognitive process and, at the same time, calls for a feeling of pleasure. This pleasure is caused not only by admiration of the selected language means and their peculiar arrangement but also by the fact that the reader is led to form his own conclusions. So the purpose of the belles-lettres style is to suggest a possible interpretation of the phenomena of life by forcing the reader to see the view point of the writer. Nothing gives more pleasure and satisfaction than realizing that one has the ability to penetrate into the hidden tissue of events, phenomena and human activity and to perceive the relation between various seemingly unconnected facts brought together by the creative mind of the writer.