Special literary vocabulary

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Contents

Introduction

Special literary vocabulary:

a). Terms

b). Poetic and Highly Literary Words

c). Archaic, Obsolescent and Obsolete Words

d). Barbarisms and Foreignisms

e). Neologisms

Conclusion

References

Introduction

In order to get a more or less clear idea of the word-stock of any language, it must be presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet independent. Some linguists, who clearly see the systematic character of language as a whole, deny, however, the possibility of systematically classifying the vocabulary. They say that the word-stock of any language is so large and so heterogeneous that it is impossible to formalize it and therefore present it in any system. The words of a language are thought of as a chaotic body whether viewed from their origin and development or from their present state.

Indeed, the coinage of new lexical units, the development of meaning, the differentiation of words according to their stylistic evaluation and their spheres of usage, the correlation between meaning and concept and other problems connected with vocabulary are so multifarious and varied that it is difficult to grasp the systematic character of the word-stock of a language, though it co-exists with the systems of other levels--phonetics, morphology and syntax.

To deny the systematic character of the word-stock of a language amounts to denying the systematic character of language as a whole, words being elements in the general system of language.

The word-stock of a language may be represented as a definite system in which different aspects of words may be singled out as interdependent.

In accordance with division of language into literary and colloquial, we may represent the whole of the word-stock

-Special Literary Vocabulary

-Common Literary Vocabulary

-Neutral Words

-Common Colloquial Vocabulary

-Professionalisms and special Colloquial Vocabulary (non-Literary).

Of the English language as being divided into three main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial l а у е r. The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of which has a feature it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common feature, which unites the different groups of words within the layer, may be called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. It is this that makes the layer more or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character. It is this that makes it unstable, fleeting.

The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. It is this that makes the layer the most stable of all.

The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialectal character.

The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English or American dictionaries is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates.

The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words: 1). common literary; 2). terms and learned words; 3). poetic words; 4). archaic words; 5). barbarisms and foreign words; 6).literary coinages including nonce-words.

The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1). common "colloquial words; 2). slang; 3). jargonisms; 4).professional words; 5). dialectal words; 6). vulgar words; 7). colloquial coinages.

The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary and those in the colloquial layer are regarded as special colloquial, (non-literary) vocabulary.

SPECIAL LITERARY VOCABULARY

a). Terms

"All scientists are linguists to some extent. They are responsible for devising a consistent terminology, a skeleton language to talk about their subject-matter. Philologists and philosophers of speech are in the peculiar position of having to evolve a special language to talk about language itself."

This quotation makes clear one of the essential characteristics of a term, viz. its highly conventional character. A term is generally very easily coined and easily accepted; and new coinages as easily replace out - dated ones.

This sensitivity to alteration is mainly due to the necessity of reflecting in language the cognitive process maintained by scholars in analyzing different concepts and phenomena. One of the most characteristic features of a term is its direct relevance to the system or set of terms used in a particular science, discipline or art, i.e. to its nomenclature. literary colloquial language word-stock

When a term is used our mind immediately associates it with a certain nomenclature. A term is directly connected with the concept it denotes. A term, unlike other words, directs the mind to the essential quality of the thing, phenomenon or action as seen by the scientist in the light of his own conceptualization.

Terms are mostly and predominantly used in special works dealing with the notions of some branch of science. Therefore it may be said that they belong to the style of language of science. But their use is not confined to this style. They may as well appear in other styles--in newspaper style, in publicistic and practically in all other existing styles of language. But their function in this case changes. They do not always fulfill their basic function, that of bearing exact reference to a given concept. When used in the belles-lettres style, for instance, a term may acquire a stylistic function and consequently become a (sporadical) SD. This happens when a term is used in such a way that two meanings are materialized simultaneously.

The function of terms, if encountered in other styles, is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make some reference to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions.

In this connection it is interesting to analyse the stylistic effect of the medical terminology used by A.J. Cronin in his novel "The Citadel". The frequent use of medical terms in the novel is explained by its subject-matter--the life of a physician--and also by the fact that the writer himself is a physician and finds it natural to use medical terminology.

The piling up of difficult and special terms hinders the reader's understanding of the text if he is not a specialist even when the writer strives to explain them. Moreover, such an accumulation of special terminology often suggests that the author is displaying his erudition. Maxim Gorki said that terms must not be overused. It has been pointed out that those who are learning use far more complicated terms than those who have already learned.

There is an interesting process going on in the development of any language. With the increase of general education and the expansion of technique to satisfy the ever-growing needs and desires of mankind, many words that were once terms have gradually lost their quality as terms and have passed into the common literary or even neutral vocabulary. This process may be called "determination". Such words as 'radio', 'television' and the like have long been in common use and their terminological character is no longer evident. We hardly-notice sometimes the terminological origin of the words we use.

But when terms are used in their normal function as terms in a work of belles-lettres, they are or ought to be easily understood from the context so that the desired effect in depicting the situation will be secured,

Here is an example of a moderate use of special terminology bordering on common literary vocabulary.

"There was a long conversation--a long wait. His father came back to say it was doubtful whether they could make the loan. Eight per cent, then being secured for money, was a small rate of interest, considering its need. For ten per cent Mr. Kuzel might make a call-loan. Frank went back to his employer, whose commercial choler rose at the report." (Theodore Dreiser, "The Financier").

Such terms as 'loan', 'rate of interest', and the phrase 'to secure for money' are widely known financial terms which to the majority of the English and American reading public need no explanation. The terms used here do not bear any special meaning. Moreover, if they are not understood they may to some extent be neglected. It will suffice if the reader has a general idea, vague though it may be, of the actual meaning of the terms used. The main task of the writer in this passage is not to explain the process of business negotiations, but to create the environment of a business atmosphere. In this example the terms retain their ordinary meaning though their function in the text is not exactly terminological.

Whenever the terms used in the belles-lettres style set the reader at odds with the text, we can register a stylistic effect caused either by a specific use of terms in their proper meanings or by a simultaneous realization of two meanings.

b). Poetic and Highly Literary Words

Poetic words form a rather insignificant layer of the special literary vocabulary. They are mostly archaic or very rarely used highly literary words which aim at producing an elevated effect. They have a marked tendency to detach themselves from the common literary word-stock and gradually assume the quality of terms denoting certain definite notions and calling forth poetic diction.

Poetic words and expressions are called upon to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry. This may be said to be the main function of poetic words.

Poetical tradition has kept alive such archaic words and forms as yclept (p. p. of the old verb clipian -- to call, name); quoth (p. t. of owed-an -- to speak); eftsoons (eftsona, -- again, soon after)., which are used even by modern ballad-mongers. Let us note in passing that archaic words are here to be understood as units that have either entirely gone out of use, or as words some of whose meanings have grown archaic, e. g. hall in the following line from Byron's Childe Harold's Pilgrimage:

Deserted is my own good hall, its hearth is desolate.

It must be remembered though, that not all English poetry makes use of "poeticisms or poetical terms", as they might be named. In the history of English literature there were periods, as there were in many countries, which were characterized by protests against the use of such conventional symbols.

Poetical words in an ordinary environment may also have a satirical function, as seen in this passage from Byron.

But Adeline was not indifferent: for

(Now for a common-place!) Beneath the snow, as a volcano holds the lava more.

Within--et cetera. Shall I go on?--No, 1 hate to hunt down a tired metaphor,

So let the often-used volcano go. Poor thing: How frequently, by me and others, it hath been stirred up till its smoke quite smothers! ("Don Juan").

The satirical function of poetic words and conventional poetic devices is well revealed in this stanza. The 'tired metaphor' and the 'often-used volcano' are typical of Byron's estimate of the value of conventional metaphors and stereotyped poetical expressions.

The striving for the unusual--the characteristic feature of some kinds of poetry--is akin to the sensational and is therefore to be found not only in poetry, but in many other styles.

Poetical words and word-combinations can be likened to terms in that they do not easily yield to polysemy. They are said to evoke emotive meanings. They colour the utterance with a certain air of loftiness, but generally fail to produce a genuine feeling of delight: they are too hackneyed for the purpose not to be stale.

The very secret of a truly poetic quality of a word does not lie in conventionality of usage. On the contrary, a poeticism through constant repetition gradually becomes hackneyed. Like anything that lacks freshness it fails to evoke a genuinely aesthetic effect and eventually call forth protest on the part of those who are sensitive to real beauty.

As far back as in 1800 Wordsworth raised the question of the conventional use of words and phrases, which to his mind should be avoided. There was (and still persists) a notion called "poetic diction" which still means the collection of epithets, periphrases, archaisms, etc., which were common characteristics of the most poets of the 18th century.

However, the term has now acquired a broader meaning. Thus Owen Barfield says:

"When words are selected and arranged in such a way that their meaning either arouses or is obviously intended to arouse aesthetic imagination, the result may be described as poetic diction."

The use of poetic words does not as a rule create the atmosphere of poetry in the true sense; it is a substitute for real art.

Poetic words are not freely built in contrast to neutral, colloquial and common literary words, or terms. The commonest means is by compounding, e. g. "young-eyed", "rosy-fingered".

Poetical words and set expressions make the utterance understandable only to a limited number of readers. It is mainly due to poeticisms that poetical language is sometimes called poetical jargon.

In modern English poetry there is a strong tendency to use words in strange combinations. It manifests itself in the coinage of new words and, most of all, in combining old and familiar words in a way that hinders understanding and forces the reader to stop and try to decipher the message so encoded.

c). Archaic, Obsolescent and Obsolete Words

The word-stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. Words change their meaning and sometimes drop out of the language altogether. New words spring up and replace the old ones. Some words stay in the language a very long time and do not lose their faculty of gaining new meanings and becoming richer and richer polysemantically. Other words live but a short time and are like bubbles on the surface of water -- they disappear leaving no trace of their existence.

In registering these processes the role of dictionaries can hardly be over-estimated. Dictionaries serve to retain this or that word in a language either as a relic of ancient times, where it lived and circulated, or as a still living unit of the system, though it may have lost some of its meanings. They may also preserve certain nonce-creations which were never intended for general use.

In every period in the development of a literary language one can find words which will show more or less apparent changes in their meaning or usage, from full vigour, through a moribund state, to death, i. e. complete disappearance of the unit from the language.

We shall distinguish three stages in the aging process of words:

The beginning of the aging process is when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent, i.e. they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use. To this category first of all belong morphological forms belonging to the earlier stages in the development of the language. In the English language these are the pronouns thou and its forms thee, thy and thine; the corresponding verbal ending - est and the verb-forms art, wilt (thou makest, thou wilt); the ending -(e) th instead of -(e) s (he maketh) and the pronoun ye.

To the category of obsolescent words belong many French borrowings which have been kept in the literary language as a means of preserving the spirit of earlier periods, e. g. a pallet (=a straw mattress); a palfrey (=a small horse); garniture (furniture); to emplume (to adorn with feathers or plumes).

The second group of archaic words is those that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English-speaking community: e. g. methinks (=it seems to me); nay (=no). These words are called obsolete.

The third group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognizable in modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable, e. g. troth (faith); a losel (=a worthless, lazy fellow).

The border lines between the groups are not distinct. In fact they interpenetrate. It is especially difficult to distinguish between obsolete and obsolescent words. But the difference is important when we come to deal with the stylistic aspect of an utterance in which the given word serves a certain stylistic purpose. Obsolete and obsolescent words have separate functions.

There is still another class of words which is erroneously classed as archaic, viz. historical words. By-gone periods in the life of any society are marked by historical events and by institutions, customs, material objects, etc. which are no longer in use, for example: Thane, yeoman, goblet, baldric, mace. Words of this type never disappear from the language. They are historical terms and remain as terms referring to definite stages in the development of society and cannot therefore be dispensed with, though the things and phenomena to which they refer have long -passed into oblivion. Historical words have no synonyms, whereas archaic words have been replaced by modern synonyms.

Archaic words are primarily and predominantly used in the creation of a realistic background to historical novels. This, the main function of archaisms, finds different interpretation in different novels by different writers. Some writers overdo things in this respect, the result being that the reader finds all kinds of obstacles in his way. Others under-estimate the necessity of introducing obsolete or obsolescent elements into their narration and thus fail to convey what is called "local colour".

Besides the function just mentioned, archaic words and phrases have other functions found in other styles. They are, first of all, frequently to be found in the style of official documents. In business letters, in legal language, in all kinds of statutes, in diplomatic documents and in all kinds of legal documents one can find obsolescent words which would long ago have become obsolete if it were not for the preserving power of the special use within the above-mentioned spheres of communication. It is the same with archaic and obsolete words in poetry. As has already been pointed out, they are employed in the poetic style as special terms and hence prevented from dropping completely out of the language.

Among the obsolescent elements of the English vocabulary preserved within the style of official documents, the following may be mentioned: -aforesaid, hereby, therewith, hereinafter named.

The function of archaic words and constructions in official documents is terminological in character. They are used here because they help to maintain that exactness of expression so necessary in this style.

Archaic words and particularly archaic forms of words are sometimes used for satirical purposes.

Some archaic words due to their inner qualities (sound-texture, nuances of meaning, morphological peculiarities, combinatory power) may be revived in a given period of the development of the English language. This re-establishing in the vocabulary, however, is generally confined to poetry and highly elevated discourse. The word albeit (although) may serve as an example.

The stylistic significance of archaic words in historical novels and in other works of fiction (emotive literature--belles-lettres) is different. In historical novels, as has been pointed out, they maintain "local colour", i.e. they perform the function of creating the atmosphere of the past. The reader is, as it were, transplanted into another epoch and therefore perceives the use of archaic words as a natural mode of communication.

Not so when archaic words are encountered in a depiction of events of present-day life. Here archaisms assume the function of an SD proper. They`re perceived in a twofold function, the typical quality of an SD, viz. diachronically and synchronically.

Stylistic functions of archaic words are based on the temporal perception of events described. Even when used in the terminological aspect, as for instance in law, archaic words will mark the utterance as being connected with something remote and the reader gets the impression that he is faced with a time-honored tradition.

d). Barbarisms and Foreignisms

In the vocabulary of the English language there is a considerable layer of words called barbarisms. These are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language. They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue. The role foreign borrowings played in the development of the English literary language is well known, and the great majority of these borrowed words now form part of the rank and file of the English vocabulary. It is the science of linguistics, in particular its branch etymology, that reveals the foreign nature of this or that word. But most of what were formerly foreign borrowings are now, from a purely stylistic position, not regarded as foreign. But still there are some words which retain their foreign appearance to a greater or lesser degree. These words, which are called barbarisms, are, like archaisms, also considered to be on the outskirts of the literary language.

Most of them have corresponding English synonyms; e. g. chic (=stylish); bon mot (=a clever witty saying); en passant (-- in passing); infinitum (= to infinity) and many other words and phrases.

It is very important for purely stylistic purposes to distinguish between barbarisms and foreign words proper. Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the English language. They are, as it were, part and parcel of the English word-stock, though they remain on the outskirts of the literary vocabulary. Foreign words, though used for certain stylistic purposes, do not belong to the English vocabulary. They are not registered by English dictionaries, except in a kind of addenda which gives the meanings of the foreign words most frequently used in literary English. Barbarisms are generally given in the body of the dictionary.

In printed works foreign words and phrases are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value. Barbarisms, on the contrary, are not made conspicuous in the text unless they bear a special bad of stylistic information.

There are foreign words in the English vocabulary which fulfill a terminological function. Therefore, though they still retain their foreign appearance, they should not be regarded as barbarisms. Such words as ukase, udarnik, soviet, kolkhoz and the like denote certain concepts which reflect an objective reality not familiar to English-speaking communities. There are no names for them in English and so they have to be explained. New concepts of this type are generally given the names they have in the language of the people whose reality they reflect.

Further, such words as solo, tenor, concerto, blitzkrieg (the blitz), and the like should also be distinguished from barbarisms. They are different not only in their functions but in their nature as well; they are terms. Terminological borrowings have no synonyms; barbarisms, on the contrary, may have almost exact synonyms.

Both foreign words and barbarisms are widely used in various styles of language with various aims, aims which predetermine their typical functions.

One of these functions is to supply local colour. In order to depict local conditions of life,- concrete facts and events, customs and habits, special carets taken to introduce into the passage such language elements as will reflect the environment. In this respect a most conspicuous role is played by the language chosen.

Another function of barbarisms and foreign words is to build up the stylistic device of non-personal direct speech or represented speech. The use of a word, or a phrase, or a sentence in the reported speech of a local inhabitant helps to reproduce his actual words, manner of speech and the environment as well.

Barbarisms and foreign words are used in various styles of language, but are most often to be found in the style of belles-lettres and the publicistic style. In the belles-lettres style, however, foreignisms are sometimes used not only as separate units incorporated in the English narrative. The author makes his character actually speak a foreign language, by putting a string of foreign words into his mouth, words which for many readers may be quite unfamiliar. These phrases or whole sentences are sometimes translated by the writer in a foot-note or by explaining the foreign utterance in English in the text. But this is seldom done.

Barbarisms assume the significance of a stylistic device if they display a kind of interaction between different meanings, or functions, or aspects. When a word which we consider a barbarism is used so as to evoke a twofold application we are confronted with an SD.

e). Neologisms

There is a term in linguistics which by its very nature is ambiguous and that is the term neologism. In dictionaries it is generally defined as "a new word or a new meaning for an established word". Everything in this definition is vague. How long words or their meanings should be regarded as new? Which words of those that appear as new in the language, say during the life-time of one generation, can be regarded as established? It is suggestive that the latest editions of certain dictionaries avoid the use of the stylistic notation "neologism" apparently because of its ambiguous character. If a word is fixed in a dictionary and provided that the dictionary is reliable, it ceases to be a neologism. If a new meaning is recognized as an element in the semantic structure of a lexical unit, it ceases to be new.

The coining of new words generally arises first of all with the need to designate new concepts resulting from the development of science and also with the need to express nuances of meaning called forth by a deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon in question. It may also be the result of a search for a more economical, brief and compact form of utterance which proves to be a more expressive means of communicating the idea.

The first type of newly coined words, i. e. those which designate newborn concepts may be named terminological coinages. The second type, I. e. words coined because their creators seek expressive utterance may be named stylistic coinages.

New words are mainly coined according to the productive models for word-building in the given language. But the new words of the literary-bookish type we are dealing with in this chapter may sometimes be built with the help of affixes and by other means which have gone out of use or which are in the process of dying out. In this case the stylistic effect produced by the means of word-building chosen becomes more apparent, and the stylistic function of the device can be felt more acutely.

Among new coinages of a literary-bookish type must be mentioned a considerable layer of words appearing in the publicistic style, mainly in newspaper articles and magazines and also in the newspaper style-- mostly in newspaper headlines.

Most of the new words of the 16th century as well as those of the 17th were foreign borrowings from Latin, Greek and continental French. The words were introduced into the English language and used in the same sense and with almost the same pronunciation as in the language they were borrowed from. But most of those which have remained in the language underwent changes due to the process of assimilation and were finally "naturalized." This process is slow. It sometimes takes centuries to make a word borrowed from another language sound quite English. The tempo of assimilation is different with different borrowings, depending in particular on the language the word is borrowed from. Borrowings from the French language are easily and quickly assimilated due to long-established tradition. The process of assimilation plays a rather important role in the stylistic evaluation of a lexical unit. The greater and the deeper the process of assimilation, the more general and common the word becomes, the less bookish it sounds, and the greater the probability of its becoming a member of the neutral layer of words.

Many coinages disappear entirely from the language, leaving no mark of their even brief existence. Other literary neologisms leave traces in the vocabulary because they are fixed in the literature of their time. In other words, new literary-bookish coinages will always leave traces in the language, in as much as they appear in writing. This is not the case with colloquial coinages. These are spontaneous, and due to their linguistic nature, cannot be fixed unless special care is taken by specialists to preserve them.

Conversion, derivation and change of meaning may be registered as means by which literary-bookish coinages are formed. These three means of word-building are mostly used to coin new terms in which new meanings are imposed on old words. Among coinages of this kind the word accessories may be mentioned. It has now become an important word in the vocabulary of feminine fashion. It means gloves, shoes and handbag, though jewelry and other ornaments are sometimes included.

Word-building by means of affixation is still predominant in coining new words.

Among new creations those with the suffix -ize seem to be the most frequent. The suffix -ize gives a strong shade of bookishness to new words.

The suffix -dom has also developed a new meaning, as in 'gangdom', 'freckledom', 'musicdom` where the suffix is used with the most general meaning of collectivity. The suffix - ее has been given new life. We have' interrogate', 'autobiography' ("..the pseudo-autobiographer has swallowed the autobiographee whole." New Statesman, Nov. 29, 1963); 'enrolls' ("Each enrollee is given a booklet filled with advice and suggestions, and attends the lecture." New York Times Magazine, Jan. 26, 1964); 'omittee', 'askee' ("That's a bad habit, asking a question and not waiting for an answer, but it's not always bad for the askee." -- Rex Stout, "Too many clients") -- ^; -

Among voguish suffixes which colour new coinages with a shade of bookishness is the suffix - ese, the dictionary definition of which is "1). Belonging to a city or country as inhabitant (inhabitants) or language, e. g. Genoese, Chinese; 2). Pertaining to a particular writer (of style or diction), e. g. Johnsonese, journalese."

Modern examples are:

'Daily-Telegraphese', 'New Yorkese'; recently a new word has appeared-- 'TV-ese'. It is the novelty of these creations that attracts our attention and it is the unexpectedness of the combination that makes us feel that the new coinage is of a bookish character.

There is still another means of word-building in modern English which may be considered voguish at the present time, and that is the blending of two words into one by curtailing the end of the first component or the beginning of the second. Examples are numerous: musico-medy (music+comedy); cinemactress (cinema+actress); avigation (avia-tion+navigation); and the already recognized blends like smog- (smoke+ fog); chortle (chuckle+snort); galumph (triumph+gallop) (both occur in Humpty Dumpty's poem in Lewis Carroll's "Through the Looking Glass").

Another type of neologism is the nonce-word, i.e. a word coined to suit one particular occasion. Nonce-words remain on the outskirts of the literary language and not infrequently remind us of the writers who coined them. They are created to designate some insignificant subjective idea or evaluation of a thing or phenomenon and generally become moribund. They rarely pass into the language as legitimate units of the vocabulary, but they remain in the language as constant manifestations of its innate power of word-building.

Here are some of these neologisms which, by the way, have the right to be called so because they will always remain neologisms, i. e. will never lose their novelty:

"Let me say in the beginning that even if I wanted to avoid Texas I could not, for I am wived in Texas, and mother-in-lawed, and uncled, and aunted, and cousined within an inch of my life." (J. Steinbeck).

The past participles mother-in-lawed, uncled, aunted and cousined are coined for the occasion on the analogy of wived and can hardly be expected to be registered by English dictionaries as ordinary English words.

Here are some more examples of nonce-words, which strike us by their novelty, force and aesthetic aspect.

"There is something profoundly horrifying in this immense, indefinite not-thereness of the Mexican scene." (Huxley).

"You're the bestest good one--she said--the most bestest good one in the worldT" (H. Ё. Bates).

""Surface knowingness" (J-. Updike); "sevenish" (around seven o'clock); "morish" (a little more). (A. Christie).

In modern English new words are also coined by a means which is very productive in technical literature and therefore is mostly found in scientific style, viz. by contractions and abbreviations. But this means is sometimes resorted to for stylistic purposes. Here are some of these coinages which appear daily in different spheres of human activity.

TRUD (=time remaining until dive). The first letters of this word sequence forms the neologism TRUD which will presumably remain as a professional term unknown to wider circles of native English speakers. Such also are the words LOX (= 1. liquid oxygen explosive, 2. liquid oxygen) and GOX (= gaseous oxygen). To the layman, oxygen is a gas, but in missilery (also anew word) it is more often a liquid or even a solid, so gaseous oxygen has to be distinguished. Other better-known examples are laser (= light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation); Unesco (United Nations Education and Science Organization); jeep (GP=General Purpose car).

Not all of the means of word coinage existing in the English language have been dealt with in this short survey. The reason for this is simple: in stylistics there are ways and means of producing an effect which attract the attention of the reader not only by the novelty of a coinage but by a more elaborate language effect. This effect must be specified to make clear the intentions of the writer. The writer in this case is seeking something that will adequately convey his idea to the mind of the reader. The means assume some additional force: novelty+force.

The stylistic effect achieved by newly-coined words generally rests on the ability of the mind to perceive novelty at the background of the familiar. The sharper the contrast, the more obvious is the effect.

And still the novelty can be used for stylistic purposes provided that the requirements for an SD indicated earlier are observed. It must be repeated that newly-minted words are especially striking. They check the easy flow of verbal sequences and force our mind to take in the referential meaning. The aesthetic effect in this case will be equal to zero if the neologism designates a new notion resulting from scientific and technical investigations. The intellectual will suppress the emotional. However, coinages which aim at introducing additional meanings as a result of an aesthetic re-evaluation of the given concept may perform the function of a stylistic device.

Conclusion

Terms are mostly used in the language of science but they can appear in any other style. When used in science terms are connected with the concepts they denote. In other styles they indicate technical peculiarities or make some relevance to the occupation of a character, create a special atmosphere.

Poetic words and expression sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry. They are mostly archaic and used in art.

Historical Terms cannot be classified as archaic (thane, yeoman, goblet, baldric, mace), they have no synonyms but archaic words can be replaced by modern synonyms. Archaic words are predominantly used in the creation of a realistic background to historical novels. The heroes of the historical novels should speak the language of the period the writer describes. There are three stages in the aging process of words: 1. words become rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent (thou, thee, thy; art, wilt). 2. Words have come out of use. Such words are called obsolete (me thinks = it seems to me; nay = no). 3. Words have dropped out of the language or become unrecognizable.

Archaic words are sometimes used for satirical purposes - it happens when an archaic word is used in inappropriate context.

Barbarisms are the words of foreign origin, assimilated into the English language. They have become facts, part and parcel of the English language; they are registered in the dictionaries. Most of them have English synonyms (chic=stylish; bon mot=a witty saying). Foreign words do not belong to the English vocabulary. In printed works foreign words are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value. One of the functions of the foreign words is to supply local colour, to depict local conditions of life, concrete facts and events, customs and habits. The common function of barbarisms and foreignisms is to build up the stylistic device of represented speech/reported speech of the local people. Sometimes one or two foreign words create an impression of an utterance made in a foreign language. Foreign words may be used to elevate the language, to exalt the expression of the idea: words that we do not quite understand have a peculiar charm.

Literary coinages or neologisms are defined as new word or new meanings for established words. Newly coined words to designate new-born concepts are named terminological coinages. Among the coinages of a literary-bookish style there are words from the publicistic style, mostly from newspaper headlines.

Another type of neologisms is the nonce-word, a word coined to suit one particular situation: to evaluate a thing or phenomenon.

References

1. Гальперин И.Р. Стилистика английского языка / И.Р. Гальперин. - М.: Высшая школа, 1981

2. Гуревич В. Стилистика английского языка. - М.: Наука, 2011

3. Єфімов Л.П., Ясінецька О.А. Стилістика англійської мови і дискурсивний аналіз. Учб. - метод. посібник. - Вінниця: НОВА КНИГА, 2004. - 240 с.

4. Мороховский А.Н., Воробъева О.П. Лихошерст Н.И. Тимошенко З.В. Стилистика английского языка. - К.: Вища школа, 1991.

5.Stylistics of the English Language. Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary. Special Literary Vocabulary Електронний ресурс] // Режим доступу: http://www.cross-kpk.ru/ims/files/New/07-eng3/Doc/voc_1.htm

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