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Introduction

70 percent of our lifetime is spent in various forms of communication activities - oral or written, so it is self evident how important it is for a philologist to know how to use different stylistic type in different situations.

Literary devices are the heart and soul of every expression. These devices breathe life in words which are common to all forms of a language whether it is a narrative, story-writing, drama, newspaper or poetry.

'Language is the dress of thought'. Imagine a person's feelings, emotions or views on a subject, stated plainly without the aid of a literary device. It would be a dull task. We all love to see our favorite movie stars delivering those wonderfully scripted dialogues with great passion and intensity. All these expressions are a manifestation of the beauty of words, which we refer to as literary devices. The English language encompasses a host of literary devices that make it so rich and expressive. They provide a broad structure under which all the types of literature are classified, studied and understood. The importance of literature in the portrayal of human emotions is best understood by the application of these devices. Some of the common ones in use are described in brief as follows

In this Course Paper I've decided to discuss the translation techniques of lexical stylistic devices in fiction. I would like to study stylistic device types and ways of their translation in literary works at deep level. I want to consider different translation peculiarities and also difficulties of fiction text translation.

In this Course paper it is showed how different kinds of stylistic devices can be translated into Russian language. They are a lot. For example: antonomasia, epithet, hyperbole, irony, pun, zeugma etc. And all of them have their own translation peculiarities. In my work the problems during the translating process are investigated.

The aim of this work is to show the translation approach in fiction, to broaden the view on studies and peculiar features of the fiction translation.

In my Course paper the ways and kinds of lexical stylistic devices translation from English into Russian language in fiction are given.

I would like to investigate the problems during the translating process, how we translate stylistic devices in fiction.

1. Translation

lexical translation fiction literary

Translation is an activity comprising the interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language - the source text - and the production, in another language, of a new, equivalent text - the target text, or translation. The goal of translation is to establish a relation of equivalence of intent between the source and target texts (that is to say, to ensure that both texts communicate the same message), while taking into account a number of constraints. The translator makes possible an exchange of information between the users of different languages by producing in the target text. Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation. On the other hand, spill-over has imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated. The functional status of translation is supported by its structural and semantic similarity with the source text. The structure of the translation should flow the source text content. There is no change acceptable. The aim of source text is maximum parallelism of structure to the respective part of target text that means for elements must be kept in target text:

1) Semantics;

2) Grammar;

3) Vocabulary;

4) Phonetics.

2. Literary translation

The translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) If the translation of non-literary works is regarded as a skill, the translation of fiction and poetry is much more of an art. The basic characteristics of literary translation can be observed in all translations events. The predominant communicative value depends on emotional and impression upon the reader. Literary translation deals with literature, novels, poems, quotations including proverbs and songs. The task of translator is to present the stylistic devices of ST and TT. Literary translation deals with any literary text. The author of literary text has his own style to write and the translator should keep his idea without changes. So that he has to reproduce his quality in translation.

Translation of fiction is very difficult, but due to work of translators we can study works of ancient philosophers, myths and legends of ancient civilizations, heritage of the European culture, and also works of modern writers. Reading the works translated into Russian, the reader perceives it as if it is initially have been written in Russian, thanks to laborious and hard work of translator who used all its talents for the translation of what the author initially bethought. As a rule, literary translation is performed only by the best experts in the field of linguistics who are capable to adapt all the coloring from one language to another, and thus, without having lost art value of the work of literature. To reflect in fine fashion an event in work of literature, the translator should be well familiar with culture and country history, its mentality and the period which is described in a work of literature. Without such knowledge translator cannot get message of author's idea across to the reader. Except knowledge of a foreign language, the translator should know the native language in perfection and be the master of an epistolary genre. Often translations are performed by different writers and though, they are not freely speaking foreign language, their translations turn out competent, beautiful and easy-to-read. Literary translation bridges the delicate emotional connections between cultures and languages and further the understanding of human beings across national borders. In the act of literary translation the soul of another culture becomes transparent, and the translator recreates the refined sensibilities of foreign countries and their people through the linguistic, musical, rhythmic, and visual possibilities of the new language.

Literary translation into Russian requires special focus on the text stylistics and is probably one of the most difficult and creative tasks. A word-for-word translation is doomed to fail here. The highest requirements imposed on this type of translation demand to render the slightest nuances of the original style, all possible connotations and the very «spirit» of the book.

Literary translators, in addition to dealing with the difficulties inherent to translations of all fields, must consider the aesthetic aspects of the text, its beauty and style, as well as its marks (lexical, grammatical, or phonological), keeping in mind that one language's stylistic marks can be drastically different from another's. The important idea is that the quality of the translation be the same in both languages while also maintaining the integrity of the contents at the same time.

For a translator, the fundamental issue is searching for equivalents that produce the same effects in the translated text as those that the author was seeking for readers of the original text. This forces the translator to consider the text, always from the perspective of literary translation, as the base of an ongoing «negotiation» with the author so that the language of the new text presents equivalent values to those of the original language, without forgetting its strength, dynamic elements, or aesthetic quality. It is generally accepted that meanings are not translated, but messages, which is the reason that the text must be considered in is totality.

When the source and target languages belong to different cultural groups, the first problem faced by the translator is finding terms in his or her own language that express the highest level of faithfulness possible to the meaning of certain words. For example, words related to typical fabrics, culinary specialties, or jobs that are all particular to the culture of the author and the audience of the original text needs to be handled with care. Among the interlinguistic limits are the puns destined to produce ambiguity that cause so much for in the hearts of translators. Titles of stories and novels provide numerous examples of these intentional ambiguities, which are at times extremely difficult or even impossible to translate.

This field is, as a result of all of this, quite different from any other (literary, medical, technical, legal, etc.) and translators need to be even more flexible and transport themselves further beyond the normal limits.

Specific complexity for literary translation is carried by the settled expressions, proverbs, phraseological units and idiomatic turns. Writers in their works often use such technique as different types of stylistic devices. And without its knowledge translation is almost impossible.

3. Lexical stylistic devices

Lexical stylistic device is such type of denoting phenomena that serves to create additional expressive, evaluative, subjective connotations. In fact we deal with the intended substitution of the existing names approved by long usage and fixed in dictionaries, prompted by the speaker's subjective original view and evaluation of things. Each type of intended substitution results in a stylistic device called also a trope.

This act of substitution is referred to transference - the name of one object is transferred onto another, proceeding from their similarity (of shape, color, function, etc.) or closeness (of material existence, cause/effect, instrument/result, part/whole relations, etc.).In literature and writing, a stylistic device (also called figure of speech or rhetorical device) is the use of any of a variety of techniques to give an auxiliary meaning, idea, or feeling.

Sometimes a word diverges from its normal meaning, or a phrase has a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it. Examples are metaphor, simile, or personification. Stylistic devices often provide emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. Here some of the most important stylistic devices are antonomasia, epithet, hyperbole, irony, metonymy, metaphor, pun, zeugma, and oxymoron used in literary works by various authors.

4. Antonomasia

Antonomasia is a lexical stylistic device in which a proper name is used instead of a common noun or vice versa. Logical meaning serves to denote concepts and thus to classify individual objects into groups (classes). The nominal meaning of a proper name is suppressed by its logical meaning and acquires the new - nominal - component. Nominal meaning has no classifying power for it applies to one single individual object with the aim not of classifying it constituting a definite group, but, on the contrary with the aim of singling it out of the group of similar objects, of individualizing one particular objects.

The word Antonomasia comes from Greek antonomazein meaning to `name differently' or `instead of'.

In literature, this technique can be used to avoid naming a person (if controversial), to reduce repeating the name again and again or to denote the characteristics of a name to an individual by calling him by that name. You know, the media uses it extensively. The word «Mary» does not indicate if the denoted object refers to the class of women, girls, boats, cats, etc.

5. He took little satisfaction in telling each Mary

The attribute «each», used with the name, turns it into a common noun denoting any woman. Here we deal with a case of antonomasia of the first type. Another type of antonomasia we meet when a common noun is still clearly perceived as a proper name. So, no speaker of English today has it in his mind that such popular English surnames as Mr. Smith or Mr. Brown used to mean occupation and the color. While such names as Mr. Snake or Mr. Backbite - Мистер `злой язык' immediately raise associations with certain human qualities due to the denotational meaning of the words «snake» and «backbite». Antonomasia is created mainly by nouns, more seldom by attributive combinations (as in «Dr. Fresh Air») or phrases (as in «Mr. What's-his-name') Доктор «Свежесть» - Мистер «Как там его зовут»

In literature, this technique can be used to avoid naming a person (if controversial), to reduce repeating the name again and again or to denote the characteristics of a name to an individual by calling him by that name. You know, the media uses it extensively.

(ST) Tarzan

(TT) Дикарь

(ST) Solomon

(TT) Мудрец

(ST) Casanova

(TT) Бабник

(ST) Beowulf

(TT) Миф

(ST) Rembrandt

(TT) Художник

(ST) Judas

(TT) Предатель

(ST) Aristotle

(TT) Философ

(ST) Cicero

(TT) Оратор

(ST) Gandhi

(TT) Миролюбивый

(ST) Beckham

(TT) Футболист

(ST) Einstein

(TT) Умник

Epithet is a lexical stylistic device that relies on the foregrounding of the emotive meaning. The emotive meaning of the word is fore grounded to suppress the denotation meaning of the latter. The characteristic attached to the object to qualify it is always chosen by the speaker himself. Epithet gives opportunities of qualifying every object from subjective viewpoint, which is indispensable in creative prose, publicist style and everyday speech. Like metaphor, metonymy and simile epithets are also based on similarity between two objects, on nearness of the qualified objects and on their comparison. Through long and repeated use epithets become fixed. Many fixed epithets are closely connected with folklore. First fixed epithets were found in Homer's poetry (e.g. «swift-footed Achilles» - Быстроногий Ахиллес). Semantically, there should be differentiated two main groups.

The biggest one is affective epithets (e.g. «gorgeous», «nasty», «magnificent», «atrocious», - «великолепный» «противный» «восхитительный» «зверский») These epithets serve to convey the emotional evaluation of the object by the speaker. Most of qualifying words found in the dictionary can be and are used as affective epithets.

Sitting by his side, I watched the peaceful dawn.

The second group - figurative epithets. The group is formed of metaphors, metonymies and similes and expressed predominantly by adjectives (e.g. «the smiling sun» - «Улыбающееся солнце», «the frowning cloud» - «Хмурое облако»), qualitative adverbs (e.g. «his triumphant look» - «его торжествующий взгляд»), or rarely by nouns in exclamatory sentences (e.g. «You, ostrich!» - «Вы трус!») and postpositive attributes (e.g. «Richard of the Lion Heart» - «Ричард - Храброе сердце»).

(ST) In the face of such a tragedy, his laughing happiness seemed queer.

(TT) Перед лицом такой трагедии его смеющееся счастье казалось странным.

(ST) Her stifled laughter made everybody nervous.

(TT) Ее сдавленный смех раздражал всех.

(ST) Her depressing ways ruined her mother's health

(TT) Ее угнетенное состояние разрушило здоровье ее матери

Two-step epithets are so called because the process of qualifying passes two stages: the qualification of the object and the qualification of the qualification itself. Two-step epithets have a fixed structure of Adv+Adj model. Phrase-epithets always produce an original impression (e.g. «shutters-coming-off-the-shops early morning» «Двери, открывающегося ранним утром магазина»). Their originality proceeds from rare repetitions. Phrase-epithet is semantically self-sufficient word combination or even a whole sentence which loses some of its independence and self-sufficiency, becoming a member of another sentence.

(ST) My careful steps reached the attic.

(TT) Я аккуратно (тихо) дошел до чердака

(ST) The idle road stretched for miles. Дорога лениво простиралась на мили

(TT) I had reached a delicate corner. Я пришел к консенсусу

(ST) All I can say is that he had an honest end.

(TT) Все, что я могу сказать это то, что жизнь он закончил честно

(ST) It was a sweet beginning to a tragic end.

(TT) Это было чудесное начало трагического конца

(ST) «Children, I grant, should be innocent; but when the epithet is applied to men, or women, it is but a civil term for weakness.»

(Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley)

(TT) В моем понимании, невинными можно назвать детей.; но когда это определение применяется к мужчинам, или женщинам, это - всего лишь формальный термин, обозначающий слабость.

(ST) In art, all who have done something other than their predecessors have merited the epithet of revolutionary; and it is they alone who are masters».

(TT) В искусстве каждый, кто сделал что-то отличное от своих предшественников, заслужил называться революционером; и именно они являются истинными мастерами».

Hyperbole

Hyperbole is a lexical stylistic device in which emphasis is achieved through deliberate exaggeration. Hyperbole is one of the common expressive means of our everyday speech (e.g. «I have told it to you a thousand times» - «Я говорил это тебе тысячу раз»). Due to long and repeated use hyperboles have lost their originality. Hyperbole can be expressed by all notional parts of speech.

(ST) Her beauty eclipsed the sun.

(TT) Ее красота затмила солнце.

It is important that both communicants should clearly perceive that the exaggeration serves not to denote actual quality or quantity but signals the emotional background of the utterance. If this reciprocal understanding is absent, hyperbole turns into a mere lie. Hyperbole is aimed at exaggerating quantity or quality. When it is directed the opposite way, when the size, shape, dimensions, characteristic features of the object are not overrated, but intentionally underrated, we deal with understatement. English is well known for its preference for understatement in everyday speech.

(ST) You are telling me this one hundred and two million times.

(TT) Вы говорите это мне в сотый раз

(ST) He was frightened to death.

(TT) Он был напуган до смерти.

Hyperbole in The Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel Garcia Marquez

(ST) He was a fugitive from all the plagues and catastrophes that had ever lashed mankind. He had survived pellagra in Persia, scurvy in the Malayan archipelago, leprosy in Alexandria, beriberi in Japan, bubonic plague in Madagscar, an earthquake in Sicily, and a disastrous shipwreck in the strait of Magellan.

(TT) Он сбежал от всех эпидемий и катастроф, которые когда-либо стегали человечество. Он пережил пеллагру в Персии, цингу в малайском архипелаге, проказу в Александрии, бери-бери в Японии, бубонную чуму на Мадагаскаре, землетрясение в Сицилии, и пагубное кораблекрушение в Магеллановом проливе.

Hyperbole in Prose

Hyperbole in The Iliad by Homer

(ST) Mars roared as loudly as nine or ten thousand men in the thick of a fight, and the Achaeans and Trojans were struck with panic, so terrible was the cry he raised.

(TT) Марс ревел так громко, словно девять тысяч или десять тысяч людей в гуще борьбы, и Ахеяне и Троянцы были охвачены паникой и подняли ужасный крик

(ST) «-even so furiously did Achilles rage, wielding his spear as though he were a god, and giving chase to those whom he would slay, till the dark earth ran

with blood.»

(TT) «- даже Ахиллес, охваченный неистовым и яростным гневом, владея копьем так, как если бы он был самим богом, тех, кого собирался убить преследовал до тех пор, пока черная земля не оросилась кровью».

Hyperbole in The Adventures of Pinocchio by C. Collodi

(ST) He cried all night, and dawn found him still there, though his tears had dried and only hard, dry sobs shook his wooden frame. But these were so loud that they could be heard by the faraway hills…

(TT) Всю ночь он плакал, и рассвет застал его все там же, и хотя его слезы высохли, и лишь его неподвижное тело вздрагивало от сдавленных, сухих рыданий, они были настолько громки, что их могли слышать даже далекие холмы…

Hyperbole in To Kill A Mockingbird by Harper Lee

(ST) A day was twenty-four hours long but seemed longer. There was no hurry, for there was nowhere to go, nothing to buy and no money to buy it with, nothing to see outside the boundaries of Maycomb County.

(TT) День был длинной в двадцать четыре часа, но казался еще более долгим. Не было никакой суматохи, поскольку там некуда было пойти, нечего было купить, и не было денег, чтобы что-то покупать, и не на что было посмотреть, не покидая графства Мэйкомб.

Hyperbole in Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad

(ST) I had to wait in the station for ten days-an eternity.

(TT) Я должен был ждать на станции десять дней, а точнее целую вечность.

(ST) I lost my sense of humor in 127 B.C…

(TT) Я потерял свое чувство юмора еще в 127

(ST) She nearly drowned in her tears.

(TT) Она почти утонула в своих слезах.

(ST) I jumped up to the moon and came back till she finished her makeup.

(TT) Я подпрыгнул до луны и вернулся обратно, пока она заканчивала свой макияж.

(ST) The sound of the shot echoed in the world.

(TT) Звук выстрела отозвался эхом во всем мире.

(ST) If her masks were to fall, it would fill the earth.

(TT) Если бы она сбросила с себя все свои маски, они заполнили бы все пространство.

(ST) Her voice brought on earthquakes.

(TT) Ее голос вызывал землетрясения.

Irony

In irony subjectivity lies in the evaluation of the phenomenon. The essence of irony consists in the foregrounding not of the logical but of the evaluative meaning. Irony thus is a stylistic device in which the contextual evaluative meaning of a word is directly opposite to its dictionary meaning.

The context is arranged so that the qualifying word in irony reverses the direction of the evaluation and a positive meaning is understood as a negative one and (much-much rare) vice versa. «She turned with the sweet smile of an alligator» - «Она повернулась со сладкой улыбкой аллигатора на лице». The word «sweet» reverse their positive meaning into the negative one due to the context. So, like all other lexical stylistic devices irony does not exist outside the context.

There are different types of irony: verbal irony and sustained irony. In the stylistic devise of verbal irony it is always possible to indicate the exact word whose contextual meaning diametrically opposes its dictionary meaning.

(ST) At the finish line of a marathon, a tired runner says, «Oh, yeah, I'm ready to run another 24 miles.

(TT) «О, да, я готов пробежать еще 24 мили» сказал усталый бегун у финишной черты»

And we deal with sustained irony when it is not possible to indicate such exact word and the effect of irony is created by number of statements by the whole text. This type of irony is formed by the contradiction of the speaker's (writer's) considerations and the generally accepted moral and ethical codes.

(ST) A high school dropout eventually becomes a medical doctor.

(TT) Человек, которого исключили из средней школы, в конечном итоге становится врачом.

Irony is an implied discrepancy between what is said and what is meant. The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning; a statement or situation where the meaning is contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the idea.

(ST) That's a pretty kettle of fish!

(TT) Хорошенькое дельце! Веселенькая история!

(ST) A fine friend you are!

(TT) Хороший друг, нечего сказать!

(ST) …Instead of admiring her courage and rejoicing in her intuition…here you are…all pulling long faces. Man and Superman by Bernard Shaw

(TT) Вместо того, чтобы восхищаться ее храбростью и радоваться ее интуиции… вот, пожалуйста… у всех вытянутые лица…

Three kinds of irony:

verbal irony is when an author says one thing and means something else. In verbal irony (sometimes called rhetorical irony), probably the most straightforward kind of irony, the speaker says something different from what he or she really believes. In its crudest form it's called sarcasm, where the speaker intentionally says the opposite of what he or she believes, and expects the audience to recognize the dissembling:

(ST) Rutgers's Hill Hall is truly a palace, suited only to kings and princes.

(TT) Зал Холма Рутджерса - действительно дворец, подходящий исключительно королям и принцам.

But verbal irony needn't be so crude: more subtle kinds of verbal irony, including understatement and hyperbole, abound.

(ST) The size of her diamond dictated her mood.

(TT) Размер ее алмаза определял ее настроение.

(ST) The boy is so intelligent that he failed in all the subjects

(TT) Мальчик настолько умен, что провалился по всем предметам.

(ST) Mr. Play It Safe was afraid to fly

He packed his suitcase and kissed his kids goodbye

He waited his whole damn life to take that flight

And as the plane crashed down he thought

«Well isn't this nice…»

(TT) Никогда не рискующий господин, который боялся летать

упаковал свой чемодан и поцеловал на прощание своих детей.

Он ждал всю свою проклятую жизнь, чтобы полететь тем рейсом

И когда самолет падал вниз, он думал

«Ну разве это не чудесно…»

(ST) A traffic jam when you're already late

A no-smoking sign on your cigarette break

It's like ten thousand spoons when all you need is a knife

It's meeting the man of my dreams

And then meeting his beautiful wife

(TT) Пробка, когда Вы уже опаздываете

Знак для некурящих во время Вашем перекуре

Это как десять тысяч ложек, когда все, что Вам нужно это нож

Когда встречаешь мужчину своей мечты

А потом встречаешь его красивую жену

2. dramatic irony is when an audience perceives something that a character in the literature does not know. In dramatic irony, the audience is more aware than the characters in a work (often, but not necessarily, a drama), and what the characters say takes on a new significance to the audience.

(ST) A famous example of tragic dramatic irony is the opening of Sophocles' Oedipus Rex, when Oedipus, the ruler of Thebes, promises to punish the man whose sins have brought a plague upon the city. Oedipus does not know, but the audience does, that he is himself the evil-doer. In Othello by Shakespeare, Othello is suspicious of his wife, Desdemona, when there is no cause for suspicion. In Romeo and Juliet by Shakespeare, Romeo kills himself after he believes that Juliet is dead.

(TT) Известный пример трагической скрытой иронии - в произведение Софокла «Эдип Рекс», когда Эдип, правитель Фив, обещает наказать человека, грехи которого принесли чуму на город. Эдип, в отличии от аудитории не знает, что он и есть тот злодей. В «Отелло» Шекспира, Отелло с подозрением относится к своей жене, Дездемоне, когда нет никакой причины для подозрения. В «Ромео и Джульетте», Ромео убивает себя после того, как он полагает, что Джульетта мертва.

3. Situational irony

When the expected outcome of a situation is in contrast with what actually results from it, then that's called situational irony.

In fiction, the reader might know beforehand that the situation will unfold not as the characters think it will, but in some unexpected way. This technique will make the reader feel for the character who is expecting something very different from what he will actually have to deal with. Also, you can hide the outcome from the reader till it actually happens so that the reader will be surprised by the unexpected outcome, and so will the character.

(ST) The short story titled The Gift of the Magi by O. Henry uses situational irony. In it, Jim and Della decide to buy a gift for each other for Christmas. Due to lack of money, Jim sells his watch to buy a set of combs for Della while Della gets her long hair cut and sold to buy a new chain for Jim's watch.

(TT) Рассказ написанный О. Генри «Подарок Mаги», в котором он использует ситуативную иронию. В этом рассказе Джим и Делла решают купить подарок друг для друга на Рождество. Из-за нехватки денег, Джим продает свои часы, чтобы купить гребень для Делли, в то время как Делла обрезает длинные волосы и продает их, чтобы купить новую цепь для часов Джима.

(ST) In Mark Twain's Tom Sawyer, Huckleberry Finn says «But Tom Sawyer he hunted me up and said he was going to start a band of robbers, and I might join if I would go back to the widow and be respectable.» Joining a band of robbers is not 'respectful'. Thus the irony is pretty apparent.

(TT) В произведении «Том Сойер» Марка Твена Хакэлбери Финн говорит: «Но Том Сойер выследил меня и сказал, что собирается сколотить банду грабителей, и я мог бы присоединиться к ним и стать уважаемым, если я вернусь к вдове». Присоединение к группе грабителей не 'уважаемо'. Таким образом, ирония довольно очевидна.

Metonymy

Another lexical stylistic device - metonymy is created by a different semantic process. It is based on contiguity (nearness) of objects. Transference of names in metonymy does not involve a necessity for two different words to have a common component in their semantic structures as is the case with metaphor but proceeds from the fact that two objects (phenomena) have common grounds of existence in reality. Such words as «cup» and «tea» have no semantic nearness, but the first one may serve the container of the second, hence - the conversational cliche.

(ST) Will you have another cup?

(TT) Не желаете еще чашечку?

Metonymy as all other lexical stylistic devices loses its originality due to long use.

The scope of transference in metonymy is much more limited than that of metaphor, which is quite understandable: the scope of human imagination identifying two objects (phenomena, actions) on the grounds of commonness of their innumerable characteristics is boundless while actual relations between objects are more limited. One type of metonymy - namely the one, which is based on the relations between the part and the whole - is often viewed independently as synecdoche.

As a rule, metonymy is expressed by nouns (less frequently - by substantivized numerals) and is used in syntactical functions characteristic of nouns (subject, object, predicative).

(ST) The pen is mightier than the sword' refers that the power of literary works is greater than military force.

(TT) Ручка является более могущественной, чем меч' ссылаясь на это, сила литературы больше чем группы войск.

In metonymy, it's the commonly recognized association between two things that counts. For example:

(ST) I have deep respect for the royal crown. Here, crown is so closely associated with monarchy that instead of saying the king or the queen, you can simple say crown.

(TT) Я испытываю глубокое уважение к королевской короне. Здесь, корона настолько тесно связана с монархией, что вместо того, чтобы говорить «король» или «королева», Вы можете просто сказать «корона»

(ST) The truck hit me from behind. (The truck hit my car from behind.)

(TT) Грузовик ударил меня сзади. (Грузовик врезался в мой автомобиль сзади.)

(ST) The press has made my life hell. (Journalists)

(TT) Пресса сделала ад из моей жизни. (Журналисты)

(ST) Blue suit grinned, might even have winked. But big nose in the grey suit still stared. Priestley

(TT) Синий костюм усмехнулся, и возможно, даже подмигнул. Но большой нос в сером костюме все еще пристально смотрел.

(ST) We smiled at each other, but we didn't speak because there were ears all around us. Chase

(TT) Мы смеялись друг над другом, но мы не разговаривали, потому что вокруг нас было много ушей.

(ST) Save your breath, I said. I know exactly what you have been thinking. Chase

(TT) Не тратьте лишних слов, сказал я. Я знаю точно, о чем Вы думали.

Metaphor

The most frequently used, well known and elaborated among lexical stylistic devices is a metaphor - transference of names based on the associated likeness between two objects, as in the «pancake», «ball» for the «sky» or «silver dust», «sequins» for «stars». So there exist a similarity based on one or more common semantic component. And the wider is the gap between the associated objects the more striking and unexpected - the more expressive - is the metaphor.

(ST) Between the lower east side tenements the sky is a snotty handkerchief. Marge Piercy

(TT) Между арендуемыми квартирами Нижнего Ист-Сайда небо, словно грязный носовой платок

If a metaphor involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects, we deal with personification, as in the «face of London» - лицо Лондона or «the pain of the ocean» - боль океана.

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