Modern English Grammar

Vivid examples of connotative meanings defined by the context or situation will also be found in the expressive use of demonstrative pronouns:

...he perfectly remembered how Aunt Ann, born in 1799, used to talk about "that dreadful Bonaparte -- we used to call him Boney, my dear." (Galsworthy)

"I had a brain wave -- went to that Mr. Mont who gave us the clothes, and he's advanced it." (Galsworthy)

"Anything unpleasant, ducky?" Soames looked up as if startled.

"Unpleasant? Why should it be unpleasant?"

"I only thought from your face."

Soames grunted. "This Ruhr!" he said. (Galsworthy)

It was that sister Doris -- She got hold of him. (Mansfield)

The common function of the demonstrative pronouns this -- these; thai -- those is to point out exactly one or more persons or things and to distinguish them from others of the same class.

Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations. The name now often given to a variety of language distinguished according to its use is "register".

The category of "register" is needed when we observe language activity in the various contexts in which it takes place and find differences in the type of language selected as appropriate to different types of official letters and documents or, say, sports commentaries, popular journalism or scientific English will always be linguistically quite distinct. Reading a fragment from any of these and many more situation types will always help to identify "the register" correctly.

The choice of items from the wrong register, and the mixing of items from different registers, are among the most frequent mistakes made by non-native speakers of a language.

The criteria of any given register are to be found in its grammar and in its vocabulary. Lexical features seem to be the most obvious. The clearest signals of a partial register, say, biology, chemistry, engineering or medicine, are scientific technical terms except those that belong to more than one science, like mathematics and modern linguistics.

Purely grammatical distinctions between the different registers are less striking, yet there can be noticeable variation in grammar also.

Many of the most characteristic stylistic traits of the language are in the field of grammar.

Standard usage of English includes formal, informal and sometimes colloquial English. Each of these, in turn, offers its own set of criteria.

Thus, formal scientific English, where precision and clarity are vital, is generally identified by special patterns of grammatical structure, by its use of complex sentences and by its affinity for precision. Most of its grammatical elements are "denotative", not "connotative".

Scientific technical literature, for instance, abounds in the use of lengthy participial, gerundial and infinitival phrases. Another noticeable feature of scientific English, for example, is the preferable use of the impersonal one, the generalising you, so called pluralis modestial we, or, say, the use of would for all persons in Singular and Plural to denote habitual repeated actions with reference to present, past and future. Not less characteristic is the frequency value of passive verbal forms, generally due to the fact that the agent is unknown or the writer prefers not to speak of him. Thus the author may also avoid showing that he himself is the agent. In its written form, formal English allows no repetition, no rephrasing to explain an abstruse point. The choice of patterns in scientific prose is therefore likely to be most factual and referential with comparatively few subjective emotional elements in it. Formal English is very seldom used in speaking -- mainly when, for instance, reading from a prepared speech, addressing a meeting, a group or an association of scholars. It is also common in legal documents and announcements, in work-papers, in proceedings, essays, etc.

Colloquial English is generally recognised by its loose syntax, its relatively short and uncomplicated sentence structure, by its frequent use of so-called sentence fragments and readily understood grammatical idioms. It is lively, free in form, often exclamatory, abounding in ellipsis.

Many of its idiomatic patterns of grammatical structure are unacceptable as standard for informal literary usage.

Here is a short passage that illustrates the degree to which J. Galsworthy, alert of mind and quick of ear, succeeded in masterly transferring to his page the very essence and pattern of staccato speech in colloquial English:

"Hallo!... That you, Wilfrid?... Michael speaking... One of our packers has been snooping copies of "Copper Coin". He's got the bird -- poor devil! I wondered if you'd mind putting in a word for him -- old Dan won't listen to me... Yes, got a wife -- Fleur's age; pneumonia, so he says. Won't do it again with yours anyway, insurance by common gratitude -- what! Thanks, old man, awfully good of you -- will you bob in, then?" (Galsworthy)

Consider also the following examples:

"Burt must be up with Michael, talking about his new book."

" Writing at his age?" said Soames.

" Well, ducky, he's a year younger than you."

"I don't write. Not such a fool. Got any more new-fangled friends?"

"Just one -- Gurdon Minho, the novelist."

"Another of the new school?"

"Oh, no, dear! Surely you've heard of Gurdon Minho; he is older than the hills... (Galsworthy)

"...You were in the war, Mr. Desert?"

"Oh, yes."

"Air service?"

"And line. Bit of both."

"Hard of a poet."

"Not at all..." (Galsworthy)

Consider also the following example:

...Where to?

"Class."

"Math?"

"No, Spanish."

"In a hurry?"

"Rather."

"What for?"

"Almost ten."

"Well, so long. Call me up" ^l.

The style of the language of everyday life, or colloquial language, answers the needs of everyday communion in everyday matters. It is essentially a dialogue in which all the participants exchange their thoughts freely. Situation, gesture, intonation help the unambiguous understanding, therefore there is no great need for the speech to be very exact, very clear. We often limit ourselves with mere hinting, and the full expressions of thought may seem pedantic. The vocabulary is neither very rich nor refined, we often recur to non-standard layers of language. The structure of sentence is simple, often elliptical to the utmost. The enunciation is negligent and contracted forms prevail.

Bernard Shaw has very wittily spoken on "Spoken English and Broken English": "...no two native speakers of English speak it alike; but perhaps you are clever enough to ask me whether I myself speak it in the same way.

I must confess at once that I do not. Nobody does, I am at present speaking to an audience of many thousands of gramophonists, many of whom are trying hard to follow my words syllable by syllable. If I were to speak to you as carelessly as I speak to my wife at home, this record would be useless; and if I were to speak to my wife at home as carefully as I am speaking to you, she would think that I was going mad.

As a public speaker, I have to take care that every word I say is heard distinctly at the far and of the large halls containing thousands of people. But at home, when I have to consider only my wife within six feet of me at breakfast, I take so little pains with my speech that very often instead of giving me the expected answer, she says "Don't mumble and don't turn your head away when you speak. I can't hear a word you are saying." And she also is a little careless. Sometimes I have tosay"what" two or three times during our meal; and she suspects me of growing deafer and deafer and deafer, though she does not say so, because, as I am now over seventy, it might be true.

No doubt I ought to speak to my wife as carefully as I should speak to a queen, and she to me as carefully as she would speak to a king. We ought to; but we don't. ("Don't" by the way is short for "do not").

We all have company manners and home manners. If you were to call on a strange family and listen through the keyhole -- not that I would suggest for a moment that you are capable of doing such very unladylike or ungentlemanlike thing; but still -- if, in your enthusiasm for studying languages you could bring yourself to do it just for a few seconds to hear how a family speak to one another when there is nobody else listening to them, and then walk into the room and hear how very differently they speak in your presence, the change would surprise you...

Suppose I forget to wind my watch, and it stops. I have to ask somebody to tell me the time. If I ask a stranger, I say "What o'clock is it?" The stranger hears every syllable distinctly. But if I ask my wife, all she hears is "clokst". This is good enough for her; but it would not be good enough for you. So I am speaking to you now much more carefully than I speak to her; but please don't tell her!"

The aesthetic and emotional impact produced by a work of literature is largely conditioned by the alternative choices of grammatical forms. The connotative analysis must essentially involve the identification of the various dimensions along which messages may differ.

Revision Material

Review your knowledge of coordination and subordination in composite sentences in Modern English and be ready to discuss:

the problem of classification of these two types of sentence structure;

the synsemantic value of coordinated clauses; overlapping relations in different types of such patterns;

sub-clauses of different types; peculiarities of their grammatical organisation in Modern English; the synsemantic value of different types of sub-clauses;

transposition and functional re-evaluation of syntactic structures;

problems of implicit predication;

neutralisation of oppositions in patterns of subordination;

transformations in sentence sequences;

h) compression of sub-clauses by nominalisation.

INDEX OF GRAMMATICAL POINTS TREATED

Absolute comparative, 91, 92

Absolute superlative, 91, 92

Absolute synonyms, 53

Abstract nouns, 4, 74, 94

Active voice, 118, 119

Actual division of the sentence, 199--208

Adjective:

base, 89, 90

derived, 89, 90

place of adjectives, 190, 237

qualitative, 89

relative, 89

Adverb, morphemic structure, 164, 165

separable adverbs, 165

Adverbial use of nouns, 77, 78

Adverbial adjuncts, 194, 195

Adverbial clauses:

of cause, 267,

of concession, 274--277

of condition, 270--273

of manner and comparison, 277, 278

of place, 268

of purpose, 214

of result, 273, 274

of time, 269, 270

Ambiguity, 40, 41, 45, 47, 50, 68, 152,153, 190, 195, 228--233, 237, 287

Allomorph, 60

Analytical forms, 64

Anaphoric to, 219

Archaic forms, 55, 160, 293

Article, 84--88

contrasting use of the article, 86

definiteness -- indefiniteness, 84, 85

generalisation -- concretisation, 84, 85

stylistic functions of the article, 86, 87

the use of the article in substantivation, 96--98

Aspect:

actions of single occurrence, 134--136,

common ~ progressive, 130

ingression (inchoative aspect), 130, 132

repeated actions, 132--134

Asymmetry, 46, 180, 221

Asyndeton, 252, 283--285

Attribute, 189--190

Attributive bond, 189

Attributive clauses continuative, 265, 266

restrictive, 265, 266

synonymic alternatives of attributive clauses, 266--277

Back-formation, 103

Be:

auxiliary, 106

copulative, 106

representative, 106, 217--220

Can and could, 114, 115

Case, 78--83

Category of state, 166

Causative, 131, 153

Cognate object, 193, 194

Cohesion, 287, 290

Colloquial English, 87, 296

Communicative unit, 169, 170

Comparative 'elatives', 92

Comparison, 90--95

Completive bond, 189

Complex sentence, 253

Composite sentence, 252--257

Compound predicate, 186

Compound sentence, 253

Compression by nominalisation, 289--291, 265, 267, 270, 272, 274

Concord, 176

Conjunctive adverbs, 260

Connotation, 47, 51, 53, 115, 292, 295

Consituation, 49, 127, 160--163, 172

Contact clauses, 252

Context, significance in judging, 37--42, 91, 184, 287

Context-sensitive, 32, 195, 272, 273, 287

Conversion, 68, 69

Covert grammar, 80

Current relevance, 150, 299

Deep sense-structure, 32, 273

Denotation, 37--42, 45, 47

Direct object, 190--194

Discourse analysis, see Text-linguistics

Distribution, 29, 69

Do:

auxiliary verb, 248

emphatic auxiliary, 106, 107, 248

half-auxiliary verb, 105--106

notional verb, 248

semi-auxiliary, 247

substitute, 217--220

Doublets, 55, 58

Durative aspect, see Aspect

Ellipsis, 212

Emphasis, 49--52, 96--98, 117, 220--225

Emphatic verb-forms, 106, 107

Expressivity:

adherent, 291--298

inherent, 291--298

Factitive object, see Cognate object

Field structure, 42--45

Finitude -- non-finitude, 99, 100

Form-word, see Function-word

Formal English, 87

Free morpheme, 61

Foreign plural, 76, 77

Free indirect speech, see Represented speech

Function-word, 31, 62, 69, 71, 105

Futurity, 154--159

Functional re-evaluation of grammatical forms, 45

Functional sentence perspective, see Actual division of the sentence

Generative grammar, 34

Get-passive, 119, 125

Go, verb-intensifier, 106, 107, 223

Going to-future, 157, 158

Gradable meaning, 91

Grammeme, 61

Grammatical category, 61

Grammatical colligation (collocation), 234--249

Habitual action, 138

Half-auxiliary verbs, 130--134

Head-word, 234--236

Historic present, 141

Homonymy,

constructional, 228--233

inflectional, 68

interparadigmatic, 68

Hypotaxis, 252--280

Idiom, grammatical, 81, 118, 121, 132, 158

Idiomatic sentences, 225--228

Idiosyncrasy, 286, 294, 201

Immediate constituent (IC's analysis), 29, 187, 188, 189

Imperative mood, 108, 109

Imperative modality, 108, 109

Imperative sentences, 270--273

Implicit predication, 281, 282

Implied plurality, 72, 78

Included clause, 254

Included sentence, 254

Incongruity, 228--233

Indefinite subject, 184

Inflection, 31, 63, 101, 102

Informal English, 291--298

Inner object, see Cognate object

Intensity, 90, 92, 220, 291--298

Intonation, 31, 291

Intransitive verbs, 190, 193

Introductory subject, see Subject

Inversion, 110, 195, 198

It:

anticipatory, 185

it is..., it was..., see actual division of the sentence Iterative aspect, see Aspect

Kernel sentence, 33

Lexical collocation, 174

Lexico-grammatical periphrasis, 181, 182

Major syntax, 170

Minor syntax, 170

Modal verbs:

primary functions, 111 -- 118

secondary functions, 111--118

Modality, 11--114, 172, 173, 186, 291 -- 298

Mood, 107--111

mechanistic analysis, 187

mentalistic analysis, 187

Modification, 65

Morphology:

paradigmatics, 60

subject-matter of morphology, 60

syntagmatics, 60 Must, 112, 113

primary functions, 112, 113

secondary functions, 112, 113

Nexus of deprecation, 18, 40, 181

Notional verbs, 105

Non-emphatic -- emphatic, 106

Non-grammatical, 220

Non-past tense, 138

Non-progressive, 101

Non-perfective, 149, 150

Nominal predicate, 186

Nominality:

infinitival nominal, 262--274

gerundive nominal, 262--274

participial nominal, 265--274

Noun:

noun-determiner, 70

noun-phrase, 236

noun-adjunct groups, 237

adverbial use of nouns, 77, 78

Not, 48, 217

Number, 44, 72

Object, 190

object complements, 190

objective case, see Case

object relationship, 194

of-phrase, 82, 83 One:

general, 44, 184

substitute, 217

One-member sentences, 208--211

One-word sentences, 171

Oppositional relations, 61

binary opposition, 27, 61, 172, 173

trinomic opposition, 61

polynomic opposition, 61

Overt grammar, 80

Paradigmatics, 60, 175

derivational paradigm, 174

morphological paradigm, 174

sentence-paradigm, 175--182

Parataxis, 253

Parcelling in sentence-structure, 197, 198

Parts of speech, 70

Passive, see Active -- Passive, 118, 119

Passive auxiliary, 246

Perfective, 101

Periphrastic form, 53

Phase, 155

Phrase, 234--249

definition, 234--236

endocentric, 234

exocentric, 234

Phrasal verbs, 108, 125--128, 130--136

Plurality, see Field structure

Polysemy:

potential polysemy, 45, 46

synchronic polysemy, 46

Possessive case, 78, 83

Predicate, types of predicate, 186

Predication, Predicative bond, 189

Predicative clauses, 262

Preposed modifiers, 236

Prescriptive (pre-normative)

grammar, 11, 12

Present tense:

exclusive present, 138, 139

imperative modality, 139

inclusive present, 137

neutral present, 138, 139

perfective use, 141

Priority, 150

Privative opposition, see Binary

opposition Progressive (continuous) tenses:

denotative meaning, 142

imperative modality, 145

implication of futurity, 145

qualitative meaning, 144

repetitive meaning, 144

Pronouns:

personal pronouns, 160

stylistic transposition of

personal pronouns, 160--163

Prosody, 31, 222, 240, 291

Qualitative genitive, 80

Qualitative meaning, 189, 190, 224, 225

Representation, 217--220

Represented speech, 285--286

Rheme, 172

Rhetorical questions, 221, 222

Scientific grammar, 13

Secondary parts of the sentence, 189

Segmentation, 198, 199

Semi-auxiliary verbs, 248

Sentence-order, 254

Sentence-substitute, 219--220

Separable verbs, 103--105

Sentence-structure, 169

Shall and should, 116--118

So, anaphoric, 219--220

Specialisation, 84

Structural Ambiguity, see Ambiguity

Structural grammar, 23--34

Stress, 40, 41, 85

Style, 87

problems of style in grammar, 87, 94, 95, 97, 98

Sub-clause, See Subordination 301

Subject, definition:

the definite subject -- the indefinite subject, 184

introductory subject, 185

Subjunctive, 107, 108, 110

Subordination, 261--282

Substitution, 217--220

Substantivation of adjectives, 96--98

Substitutes for passive, 125--130

Superlative, 90

Suppletive form, 63

Supra-phrasal unity, 199, 200

Surface structure, 32, 283, 287

Syndetic, 252

Synonymy:

paradigmatic synonyms, 47, 52--55

relative synonyms, 53, 54

synonyms by function in speech,

47, 52--55, 154

stylistic synonyms, 53, 54

Synsemantics, 71

Syntagmatics, 60, 175

Syntax:

syntactic categories, 193, 194

syntactic content, 193, 194

syntactic forms, 193, 194, 195

syntactic functions, 175

syntactic hierarchy, 175

Syntactic mood, 172

Synthetic forms, 63, 64

Taxonomic classes of words, 67

Theme, 172

Textlinguistics, 199

Tense, 137--159

Transformational grammar. 33

Transform, 33, 34, 192, 193

Transitivity, 190--194

Transposition of grammatical forms, 45--49, 280, 281

regular, 48, 49 stylistic, 48, 49

Two-member (two-nucleus) sentences, 184

Used to, 133

Utterance, 171

Verbal predicate, 186

Verb forms, 99--101

Verb phrases, 130--136, 242--244

Verbless sentences, 185, 186, 214--217

Variant forms, see Doublets

Voice, see Active -- passive

Word-order, 195, 196

Will/would, 118, 227

Wish-sentences, 280, 281

With-phrase, 287

Zero article, 84

Zero (grammatical) inflection, 31

Zero-derivative nouns, 135

RECOMMENDED LITERATURE

Suggestions will be made here for further learning, so that the student can follow up various lines of thought suggested in the book. The reference list given below will include not only some advanced books devoted to teaching English grammar, but also, detailed monographs and work-papers on specialised topics which will interest the student.

Адмони В. Г. Завершенность конструкции как явление синтаксической формы. «Вопросы языкознания», 1958, № 1.

Аналитические конструкции в языках различных типов. М., 1965.

Апресян А. Д. Идеи и методы современной лингвистики. М., 1966.

Арнольд И. В. Стилистика современного английского языка. М., 1973.

Ахманова О. С, Мельчук И. А., Падучева Е. В., Ф р у м к и-н а Р. М. О точных методах исследования языка. М., 1961.

Ахманова О. С. К вопросу о словосочетании в современном английском языке. «Известия Академии наук СССР. Отделение литературы и языка», т. 9, вып. 6, 1950.

Ахманова О. С. О роли служебных слов в словосочетании. В кн.: «Доклады и сообщения» (Институт языкознания Академии наук СССР). Вып. 2. М., 1952.

Ахманова О. С, Микаэлян Г. Б. Современные синтаксические теории. М., 1963.

Бархударов Л. С. Структура простого предложения современного английского языка. М., 1966.

Бархударов Л. С, Штелинг Д. А. Грамматика английского языка. М., 1973.

Виноградов В. В. Основные принципы синтаксиса. В кн.: «Грамматика русского языка». Известия АН СССР, ОЛЯ, т. 13, вып. 6, 1954.

Воронцова Г. И. Очерки по грамматике английского языка. М., i960. Грамматика современного русского литературного языка. М., 1970.

Жигадло В. Н., Иванова И.П., Иофик Л. Л. Современный английский язык. М., 1956.

Жлуктенко Ю. О. Порівняльна граматика української та англійської мов. К., 1960.

Жлуктенко Ю. А. О так называемых «сложных глаголах» типа stand up в современном английском языке. «Вопросы языкознания», 1954, № 5.

Иванова И.П. Вид и время в современном английском языке. Л., 1961.

И о ф и к Л. Л. Сложное предложение в ново-английском языке. Л., 1968.

Иртеньева Н. Ф., Барсова О. М., Шинкин А. П., Блох М. Я. Theoretical English Grammar. M., 1968.

Коваленко В. Е. Именные средства выражения предикации. Львов, 1969.

Коллективная монография «Морфология и синтаксис русского литературного языка». М., 1968.

Коллективная монография Института языкознания АН СССР. М., 1973.

Корсаков А. К. The Use of Tenses. Lvov., 1968.

Корсаков А. К. Перфектно-поширені форми та вираження часових відношень в англійській мові. «Іноземна філологія», 1965, вип. 5.

Курилович Е. Основные структуры языка: словосочетание и предложение. В кн.: «Очерки по лингвистике». М., 1962.

Методологічні питання мовознавства. Збірник Академії наук УРСР і Київського держуніверситету, 1966.

Мороховская Э. Я. Theoretical Grammar through Practice. L., 1972.

Мухин А. М. Модели внутренних синтаксических связей предложения. «Вопросы языкознания», 1970, № 4.

М у х и н А. М. Структура предложений и их модели. М., 1968.

Мысли о современном русском языке. Сборник статей под редакцией Виноградова В. В. М., 1969. v Почепцов Г. Г. Конструктивный анализ структуры предложения. К., 1971.

Смирницкий А. И. Морфология английского языка. М., 1955. Смирницкий А. И. Синтаксис английского языка. М., 1955.

Степанов К). С. Основы языкознания. М., 1966.

Структурный синтаксис английского языка (пособие по теоретической грамматике). Л., 1972.

Шведова Н. Ю. Типология односоставных предложений на основе характера их парадигм. В кн.: «Проблемы современной филологии». Сборник статей к 70-летию В. В. Виноградова. М., 1965.

Ярцева В. Н. Историческая морфология английского языка. М., 1959.

Ярцева В. Н. Исторический синтаксис английского языка. М., 1961.

Ярцева В. Н. Основной характер словосочетания в английском языке. Известия Академии наук СССР, т. 6, вып. 4, 1947.

Ярцева В. Н. Предложение и словосочетание. В кн.: «Вопросы грамматического строя». М., 1955.

Ярцева В. Н. Взаимоотношение грамматики и лексики в системе языка. В кн.: «Исследования по общей теории грамматики». М., 1968.

Васh E. An Introduction to Transformational Grammars. New York -- Chicago -- San Francisco, 1964.

Bloomfield. Language. London, 1969.

Chomsky N. Syntactic Structures. The Hague, 1965.

Chomsky N. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, 1965.

Christophersen P. The Articles: a Study of Their Theory and Use in English. Copenhagen, 1939.

Curme G. O. Grammar of the English Language. New York, 1935.

Deutschbein M. System der neuenglischen Syntax. Leipzig, 1935.

Fries Ch. The Structure of English. London, 1959.

Francis W. N. The Structure of American English. New York, 1958.

Ganshina M. A., Vasilevskaya N. M. English Grammar. M., 1964.

G 1 e a s о n H. A. An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics. New York, 1965.

G 1 e a s о n H. A. Linguistics and English Grammar. New York, 1965.

Harris Z. S. Methods in Structural Linguistics. Chicago, 1961.

Harris Z. S. String Analysis of Sentence Structure. The Hague, 1962.

Hathaway B. A Transformational Syntax. New York, 1967.

Hill A. Introduction to Linguistic Structures. New York, 1958.

Hockett С F. A Course in Modern Linguistics. New York, 1958.

Hook J.M., Mathews E. G. Modern American Grammar and Usage. New York, 1956.

Ilуsh B.A. The Structure of Modern English. M., 1964.

Jespersen O. Essentials of English Grammar. London, 1933.

Jespersen O. The Philosophy of Grammar. London, 1968. Khaimovich B. S., Rogovskaya B.I. A Course of English Grammar. M., 1967.

Коbrina N. A., Korneyeva. An Outline of Modern English Syntax. M., 1965.

Kruisinga E. A Handbook of Present-Day English. Groningen, 1931.

Lees R. B. The Grammar of English Nominalisations. The Hague, 1964.

Long R. The Sentence and Its Parts. Chicago, 1962.

Lukas E. L. Style. London, 1955.

Murrey J., Middletоn J. The Problem of Style. Oxford, 1955.

Nida E. A. A Synopsis of English Syntax. 2nd Ed. The Hague, 1966.

Poutsma H. A. A Grammar of Late Modern English. P. II. Groningen, 1926.

R о b e r t s P. English Syntax. New York, 1964.

R о b e r t s P. Patterns of English. New York, 1956.

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